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1 The Power of Image: Introducing Publicity Rights1

Ⅰ.Introduction1

Ⅱ.Tracing the Development of Publicity Practice2

Ⅲ.The Scope of this Project5

Part Ⅰ Understanding Publicity: Theory and Practice9

2 The Theory of Image and Publicity Rights11

Ⅰ.The Legal Landscape11

Ⅱ.The ‘Publicity as Property' Approach12

Ⅲ.Publicity as a Subset of Personality Rights16

Ⅳ.Appropriation of Personality19

A.Appropriation of Personality19

B.Character Merchandising22

Ⅴ.A Fourth Way: Privacy and Publicity25

Ⅵ.Cross-Overs and Conclusions27

3 The Exploitation of Image and Publicity30

Ⅰ.Introduction30

Ⅱ.The Dual Classification Part 1: The Use Approach32

A.Examining Publicity Uses32

B.The Tripartite Classification of Uses35

C.The Paradigm Publicity Use Cases39

D.Authorised and Unauthorised Use42

Ⅲ.The Dual Classification Part 2: The Subject Matter Approach44

A.Identifying the Subject Matter44

B.The Underlying Element: Reputation48

Ⅳ.Analysis of Contracts for Publicity Exploitation53

Ⅴ.Conclusion58

4 Privacy as a Basis for Protecting Publicity Rights60

Ⅰ.Introduction60

Ⅱ.The Right to Privacy in the UK61

A.Introduction61

B.Breach of Confidence63

C.A Reasonable Expectation of Privacy64

D.Freedom of Expression69

E.Summary71

Ⅲ.Publicity as a Privacy Right72

A.Introduction72

B.The Need for a Confidential Relationship or a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy73

C.Private Information: Invasion versus Dissemination73

D.Defences to Privacy Infringements75

E.Positive Exploitation76

i.Waiving the Right to Privacy76

F.Exploiting Publicity by Licensing a Privacy Right: Douglas v Hello!78

Ⅳ.Conclusion81

Part Ⅱ Justifying Publicity Rights83

5 Justifying Publicity Rights: Setting the Scene85

Ⅰ.Introduction85

Ⅱ.Benefits and Harms: Identifying the Interests at Stake87

A.The Dual Interests in Publicity Literature88

B.The Dual Interests in Publicity Practice92

C.The Economic and Dignitarian Interests in Other Areas of Law94

D.Dignitarian and Economic Interests: Mutually Exclusive or Mutually Compatible?95

Ⅲ.Accepting Three Rebuttals of Publicity Rights96

6 Order, Autonomy and Efficiency: Justifying a Right of Publicity102

Ⅰ.Advancing Justifications for Publicity Rights102

Ⅱ.Ordering the Chaos103

Ⅲ.The Dignitarian Rationale for Publicity107

A.Autonomy and Dignity107

B.The Significance of Image for Autonomy109

C.Autonomy and Dignity in the Context of Publicity110

D.Denial of Autonomy and Dignity in Publicity112

E.Autonomy and Dignity in the Economic Interest116

F.Waiver of Autonomy and Dignity in Persona?117

G.Summary118

Ⅳ.The Economic Rationale for Publicity119

A.Economic Efficiency119

B.Identifying the Social Asset120

C.Over-Consumption of Persona Leading to Tragedy?121

D.Allowing Net Positive Externalities124

E.Maximising Efficiency through a Balance of Rights125

F.Summary126

Ⅴ.Two Further Objections Considered127

A.The Argument from Free-Riding127

B.The Argument from Wealth Distribution129

Ⅵ.The Alternative Question131

Ⅶ.Conclusion133

7 The Competing Interests134

Ⅰ.Introduction134

Ⅱ.Freedom of Expression134

Ⅲ.Creative and Communicative Use138

Ⅳ.Conclusion141

8 The Nature of Publicity Rights142

Ⅰ.Introduction142

Ⅱ.Identifying the Individual142

Ⅲ.Inalienability and the Property Status of Publicity145

Ⅳ.Publicity as a Monopoly147

Ⅴ.The Likelihood of Legislation150

Ⅵ.Conclusion151

Part Ⅲ Shaping Publicity Rights153

9 The Scope of Publicity Rights: Formation, Duration and Transfer155

Ⅰ.Introduction155

Ⅱ.Formalities156

A.Labour or Creativity156

B.Registration157

Ⅲ.Duration160

A.Introduction160

B.Duration in Life161

C.Post Mortem Duration162

Ⅳ.Transmission and Transferability167

A.Transfer of the Right in Life: Assignation and Licensing168

B.Transmission of the Right Post Mortem170

10 The Permitted Uses of Persona171

Ⅰ.Introduction171

Ⅱ.Private Use171

Ⅲ.Freedom of Expression171

Ⅳ.Public Policy172

Ⅴ.Public Interest173

Ⅵ.Fair Dealing177

Ⅶ.Parody178

Ⅷ.Other Possible Permitted Uses180

11 Remedies for Breach of Publicity Rights182

Ⅰ.Introduction182

Ⅱ.Preventing Unauthorised Use182

Ⅲ.Redressing Unauthorised Use: Damages184

A.Introduction184

B.The Notional Licence Fee185

C.Additional Damages190

D.Account of Profits190

E.The Calculation of the Award191

F.Windfalls192

Ⅳ.Other Disposals193

Ⅴ.Remedies for Authorised Users194

12 Conclusion196

Appendix 1199

Bibliography200

Index215