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1.Age of Responsibility1

The Legal Regulation of Childhood and Adolescence2

History of Criminal Responsibility4

Human Rights and the Age of Responsibility6

Most Violated Treaty6

Pro: Supporting Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility7

Circumventing the Juvenile Justice System7

Moral and Cognitive Reasoning8

Actual Juvenile Crime Rates8

Con: Opposing Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility9

Excuse or Full Responsibility9

Fallout From the Era of the “Child Savers”9

Essential to Intervene10

Developing Guidelines for Age Limits11

2.Alternative Schools15

The History of Alternative Schools17

The 1960s and 1970s17

The 1990s: Rising Worries of Violence18

2000s: No Child Left Behind18

Selecting Students for Alternative Schools19

Types of Alternative Schools20

Continuation High Schools and Private Examples21

Characteristics of Alternative Schools22

Pro: Arguments in Support of Alternative Schools22

Con: Arguments in Opposition to Alternative Schools23

Do Alternative Schools Work?24

Methodological Problems in the Research25

Public Opinion26

3.At-Risk Youth29

Defining the At-Risk Youth30

Predisposing Factors30

Demographic Factors30

Personality Traits31

Familial Contexts32

Social Context33

Influence of Violence and Conflicting Standards in Society33

Identifying the At-Risk Youth34

Problems at School and Home35

Behavioral and Social Indications35

Labeling the At-Risk Youth36

Prevalence37

High School Dropouts37

Sexual Promiscuity and Unprotected Sexual Intercourse37

Crime and Delinquency38

Drug and Alcohol Use and Abuse39

Obesity and Other Health-Related Risks39

Other High-Risk Behaviors40

Prevention and Intervention Strategies40

Pro: Benefits of Prevention Strategies41

Con: Drawbacks of Prevention Strategies42

4.Boot Camps45

History of Boot Camps46

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Study46

National Institute of Justice Analysis47

Recent Trends48

Backlash at Boot Camps49

A Cottage Industry50

Pro: Advantages of Juvenile Boot Camps51

Completion Rates51

Competency Development-Educational Outcomes52

Cost Savings Compared to Incarceration52

Youth and Public Perceptions53

Con: Disadvantages of Juvenile Boot Camps53

A Flawed Theory of Change53

Allegations of Abuse and Neglect54

Inconsistent Program Implementation54

Higher Overall Costs55

Recidivism Rates56

5.Curfews59

History of Curfews60

1980s: Spike in Violence61

Legality of Curfews62

Pro: Arguments in Support of Juvenile Curfews64

Con: Arguments in Opposition to Juvenile Curfews65

Juvenile Crime Rates and Types66

Flawed Data67

6.Death Penalty for Juvenile Offenders73

Death Penalty Implementation: Legal Principles74

Evolving Standards of Decency75

Application of Principles for Juveniles75

Thompson v.Oklahoma76

Stanford v.Kentucky77

Roper v.Simmons78

Pro: Support for Death Penalty for Juveniles80

Justice and Maturity of Judgment80

A Miscarriage of Justice81

Con: Opposition to Death Penalty for Juveniles82

Lack of a Deterrent Effect82

Juvenile Impulsivity83

Temporary Lack of Judgment84

Conclusion85

7.Group Homes89

History of Group Homes for Delinquent Youths90

Who Goes to Group Homes?91

The Contagion Effect91

Recent Trends92

Positive Peer Culture Program92

Pro: Benefits of Group Homes for Delinquent Youths94

Home-Like Environment Helps Youths Transition94

Less Restrictive Than Other Secure Placement Options95

Less Expensive Than Other Secure Placement Options96

Con: Drawbacks of Group Homes for Delinquent Youths96

Mismatched System96

Influence of Housemate Peers Versus Positive Support97

Other More Cost-Effective Alternatives98

Resistance From Local Community99

Conclusion100

8.Juvenile Detention Facilities103

Overview of Juvenile Detention: A Place and a Process104

Legal Criteria by State105

History of Juvenile Detention106

Profile of Detained Youths107

Alternatives to Secure Juvenile Detention108

Planning for Change109

Pro: Benefits of Juvenile Detention Facilities110

Con: Drawbacks of Juvenile Detention Facilities111

Denial of Services112

9.Juvenile Gangs and Delinquency117

Defining Juvenile Gangs118

Juvenile Gang Members and Their Lives119

Research on Gangs Across America119

Gang Locations121

Gang Delinquency122

Responses to Gangs123

Police Suppression Techniques123

Prosecutorial and Legislative Suppression Techniques124

Civil Gang Injunctions125

Gang Interventions125

Gang Prevention126

Pro: Benefits of Gang Prevention Techniques126

Prosecutorial and Legislative Suppression Techniques127

Gang Prevention127

Con: Drawbacks of Gang Prevention Techniques127

Controversies Surrounding Suppression Techniques128

Civil Injunctions129

Gang Interventions129

Conclusion129

10.Juvenile Offenders in Adult Courts131

Differentiating Juvenile and Adult Justice132

Mechanisms of Transfer133

Statutory or Legislative Exclusion134

Who Reaches Adult Court?135

Transfer Biases136

What Happens to These Transferred Youths?138

Pro: Arguments in Support of Juveniles in Adult Court139

Types of Offender and Transfer Mechanisms140

Con: Arguments Against Juveniles in Adult Court141

Modern Advances in Adolescent Research142

Adult Court Outcomes for Youth142

Conclusion143

11.Juveniles in Adult Correctional Facilities147

Methods for Transferring to the Adult System148

The Supreme Court: How Harsh of a Sentence?149

A Glimpse at Daily Life150

A Profile of Juveniles in Adult Correctional Facilities151

Pro: Support for Juvenile Transfer to Adult Facilities152

A Deterrent Effect153

Con: Opposition to Juvenile Transfer to Adult Facilities154

Well-Being and Victimization155

Lack of Programs and Mismatch of Supervision156

Recidivism Rates157

Length of Time Served158

12.Legal Representation163

History of Legal Representation for Juveniles164

The 1990s: Assessing Due Process for Juveniles165

The Case of Roper v.Simmons167

Current Issues in Legal Representation for Juveniles168

Ineffective Assistance of Counsel168

Right to Conflict-Free Counsel169

Right to Consult With Counsel Without Parents170

Trial Court Abusing Discretion170

Supervising Good Juvenile Defense Bar Practices171

Pro: Benefits of Legal Representation for Juveniles173

Con: Drawbacks of Legal Representation for Juveniles174

Lack of Oversight174

The Dilemmas of Counsel175

Conclusion175

13.Out-of-Home Placement179

History of Out-of-Home Placements181

Early Beginnings181

The Child-Saving Era of Progressive Reformers181

The Get-Tough Movement to Modern Placement183

Pro: Benefits of Out-of-Home Placement184

Con: Drawbacks of Out-of-Home Placement185

Psychological and Developmental Problems186

Disruption of Relationships187

Culture Shock187

Out-of-Home Versus Community-Based Interventions188

Outdated Theories and Programs189

Disproportionate Numbers of Minorities190

Conclusion190

14.Parental Responsibility Laws195

Contributing to Delinquency196

Examples of Applied Delinquency Laws197

Empirical Inquires199

Parental Responsibility Reestablished199

Up Close and Personal200

Street Terrorism Enforcement and Prevention Act202

Are the New Laws Constitutional?202

Pro: Arguments Supporting Parental Responsibility Laws203

Con: Arguments Opposing Parental Responsibility Laws204

Conclusion206

15.Racial Disparities209

Policy and Paradigm211

Report of Accountability212

A Historiographic Analysis of Race in Juvenile Justice214

Bio-Underclass, Regulation, and “Other” Children216

Abolition and Juvenile Justice: A Still-Relevant Movement218

Scholarly Resistance: The Antiabolitionists220

Pro: Support for the Theory of Racist Juvenile Justice220

Con: Rejection of the Theory of Racist Juvenile Justice221

Conclusion222

16.Scared Straight Programs225

The History of the Juvenile Awareness Project226

A Change in Tone227

The Scared Straight! Documentary229

Controversy230

Congressional Inquiry230

Pro: Advantages of Scared Straight Programs232

Con: Disadvantages of Scared Straight Programs233

The Panacea Phenomenon234

Does the Program Work? Conflicting Answers235

17.School Violence240

The Scope of School Violence242

Bullying242

Violent Versus Nonviolent Crime242

Causes of School Violence243

Psychological Factors244

School Characteristics and Neighboring Factors244

Parental Influence245

Technology and Guns246

The Cost of School Violence247

Solving the School Violence Problem248

Pro: Benefits of Punitive Responses to School Violence248

Con: Drawbacks of Punitive Responses to School Violence250

18.Sentencing Options255

History of Juvenile Sentencing256

The 1990s: Probation257

The 2000s: Spike in Delinquency258

Once an Adult, Always an Adult259

Capital Punishment and Life Without Parole260

Pro: Positive Sentencing Options261

Sentencing Youths to Probation261

Use of Judicial Discretion262

Con: Negative Sentencing Options263

Use of Formal Processing and Incapacitation263

Transfer to Adult Court264

Conclusion265

19.Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders269

Historical Developments270

Risk and Violence271

Individual Risk272

System Response273

Pro: Benefits of Predicting Serious Offenders275

Con: Drawbacks of Predicting Serious Offenders276

Conclusion277

20.Treatment and Rehabilitation281

Evolution of Treatment and Rehabilitation Approaches282

Treatment of Youths in General282

Treatment of Youths in the Justice Sector283

Culpability or Treatment Amenability: Youths Versus Adults284

How to Treat285

Principles of Effective Treatment286

Whom to Treat286

Pro: Arguments in Support of Treatment287

Treatment Does Work287

Con: Arguments Against Treatment288

Distributive Justice289

The Future of Treatment and Rehabilitation290

Index297

About the General Editor336