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INTRODUCTION1

Chapter Ⅰ．A Glance at the History of Linguistics1

Chapter Ⅱ．Subject Matter and Scope of Linguistics;Its Relations with Other Sciences6

Chapter Ⅲ．Object of Linguistics7

1．Definition of Language7

2．Place of Language in the Facts of Speech11

3．Place of Language in Human Facts;Semiology15

Chapter Ⅳ．Linguistics of Language and Linguistics of Speaking17

Chapter Ⅴ．Internal and External Elements of Language20

Chapter Ⅵ．Graphic Representation of Language23

1．Need for Studying the Subject23

2．Influence of Writing;Reason for Its Ascendancy over the Spoken Form23

3．Systems of Writing25

4．Reasons for the Discrepancy between Writing and Pronunciation27

5．Results of the Discrepancy29

Chapter Ⅶ．Phonology32

1．Definition32

2．Phonological Writing33

3．Validity of Evidence Furnished by Writing34

APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHONOLOGY38

Chapter Ⅰ．Phonological Species38

1．Definition of the Phoneme38

2．The Vocal Apparatus and its Functioning41

3．Classification of Sounds According to Their Oral Articulation44

Chapter Ⅱ．Phonemes in the Spoken Chain49

1．Need for Studying Sounds in the Spoken Chain49

2．Implosion and Explosion51

3．Different Combinations of Explosions and Implosions in the Chain54

4．Syllabic Boundary and Vocalic Peak57

5．Criticism of Theories of Syllabication58

6．Length of Implosion and Explosion60

7．Phonemes of Aperture 4;Diphthongs;Questions about Transcription60

Editor＇s Note62

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES65

Chapter Ⅰ．Nature of the Linguistic Sign65

1．Sign,Signified,Signifier65

2．Principle Ⅰ:The Arbitrary Nature of the Sign67

3．Principle Ⅱ:The Linear Nature of the Signifier70

Chapter Ⅱ．Immutability and Mutability of the Sign71

1．Immutability71

2．Mutability74

Chapter Ⅲ．Static and Evolutionary Linguistics79

1．Inner Duality of All Sciences Concerned with Values79

2．Inner Duality and the History of Linguistics81

3．Inner Duality Illustrated by Examples83

4．The Difference Between the Two Classes Illustrated by Comparisons87

5．The Two Linguistics Contrasted According to Their Methods and Principles90

6．Synchronic Law and Diachronic Law91

7．Is There a Panchronic Viewpoint?95

8．Consequences of the Confusing of Synchrony and Diachrony96

9．Conclusions98

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS101

Chapter Ⅰ．Generalities101

Chapter Ⅱ．The Concrete Entities of Language102

1．Definition of Entity and Unit102

2．Method of Delimitation104

3．Practical Difficulties of Delimitation105

4．Conclusion106

Chapter Ⅲ．Identities,Realities,Values107

Chapter Ⅳ．Linguistic Value111

1．Language as Organized Thought Coupled with Sound111

2．Linguistic Value from a Conceptual Viewpoint114

3．Linguistic Value from a Material Viewpoint117

4．The Sign Considered in Its Totality120

Chapter Ⅴ．Syntagmatic and Associative Relations122

1．Definitions122

2．Syntagmatic Relations124

3．Associative Relations125

Chapter Ⅵ．Mechanism of Language127

1．Syntagmatic Solidarities127

2．Simultaneous Functioning of the Two Types of Groupings128

3．Absolute and Relative Arbitrariness131

Chapter Ⅶ．Grammar and Its Subdivisions134

1．Definitions:Traditional Divisions134

2．Rational Divisions136

Chapter Ⅷ．Role of Abstract Entities in Grammar137

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS140

Chapter Ⅰ．Generalities140

Chapter Ⅱ．Phonetic Changes140

1．Their Absolute Regularity143

2．Conditioned Phonetic Changes144

3．Points on Method145

4．Causes of Phonetic Changes147

5．The Effect of Phonetic Changes Is Unlimited151

Chapter Ⅲ．Grammatical Consequences of Phonetic Evolution153

1．Breaking of the Grammatical Bond153

2．Effacement of the Structure of Words154

3．There are No Phonetic Doublets155

4．Alternation157

5．Laws of Alternation158

6．Alternation and Grammatical Bond160

Chapter Ⅳ．Analogy161

1．Definition and Examples161

2．Analogical Phenomena Are Not Changes162

3．Analogy as a Creative Force in Language165

Chapter Ⅴ．Analogy and Evolution168

1．How an Analogical Innovation Enters Language168

2．Analogical Innovations as Symptoms of Changes in Interpretation169

3．Analogy as a Renovating and Conservative Force171

Chapter Ⅵ．Folk Etymology173

Chapter Ⅶ．Agglutination176

1．Definition176

2．Agglutination and Analogy177

Chapter Ⅷ．Diachronic Units,Identities,and Realities179

Appendices to Parts Three and Four173

1．Subjective and Objective Analysis173

2．Subjective Analysis and the Defining of Subunits185

3．Etymology189

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS191

Chapter Ⅰ．Concerning the Diversity of Languages191

Chapter Ⅱ．Complications of Geographical Diversity193

1．Coexistence of Several Languages at the Same Point193

2．Literary Language and Local Idiom195

Chapter Ⅲ．Causes of Geographical Diversity197

1．Time,the Basic Cause197

2．Effect of Time on continuous Territory199

3．Dialects Have No Natural Boundaries201

4．Languages Have No Natural Boundaries203

Chapter Ⅳ．Spread of Linguistic Waves205

1．Intercourse and Provincialism205

2．The Two Forces Reduced to One207

3．Linguistic Differentiation on Separate Territories208

PART FIVE CONCERNING RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS212

Chapter Ⅰ．The Two Perspectives of Diachronic Linguistics212

Chapter Ⅱ．The Oldest Language and the Prototype215

Chapter Ⅲ．Reconstructions218

1．Their Nature and Aim218

2．Relative Accuracy of Reconstructions220

Chapter Ⅳ．The Contribution of Language to Anthropology and Prehistory222

1．Language and Race222

2．Ethnic Unity223

3．Linguistic Paleontology224

4．Linguistic Type and Mind of the Social Group227

Chapter Ⅴ．Language Families and Linguistic Types228

Index233