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PART Ⅰ．INTRODUCTION1

Chapter 1:A Philosophy of Drafting1

A．The Characteristics of Good Legal Writing4

1．Accuracy4

2．Clarity6

3．Concision7

4．Simplicity9

5．Tone9

B．Three Types of Legal Writing10

1．Discoursive Writing10

2．Litigation-Related Writing11

3．Normative Writing12

C．The Ultimate Consequence of Drafted Documents13

D．Drafting as a Facilitator of Self-Government and Economic Enterprise15

E．Drafting as a Form of Preventive Lawyering16

F．Drafting as an Intellectual Exercise17

1．Knowledge of the Law17

2．Investigation19

3．Conceptualization20

4．Prescience22

5．Organization22

G．Drafting as a Literary Exercise23

1．Words23

2．Sentences25

3．Other Word Construction Techniques25

4．Headings26

H．Drafting as an Ethical Exercise26

I．The Costs of Bad Drafting28

1．Social Costs28

2．Client Costs29

3．Drafter Costs30

J．Drafting From Scratch30

Chapter 2:Contract Drafting33

A．The Role of the Contract Drafter33

B．Recurring Problems in Contract Drafting34

1．Unintended Contracts34

2．Documents Intended to be Contracts That Fail36

3．Contracts Containing Gaps37

4．Ambiguous and Unnecessarily Vague Terms38

5．Unanticipated Events39

C．Types of Contracts40

D．The Parts of a Contract41

1．Caption or Heading41

2．Introductory Paragraph41

3．Recitals42

4．Definitions44

5．Substantive Provisions45

6．Housekeeping Provisions45

7．Signature Blocks50

8．Date51

9．Notarization51

10．An Appendix51

E．Amending Contracts52

Chapter 3:Legislative Drafting55

A．Who Drafts Legislation?55

B．The Functions of the Legislative Drafter56

C．Legislation Compared to Private-Law Documents59

1．Nature and Size of the Audience60

2．The Need for Precision62

3．Policy Considerations63

4．The Need for Factual Data64

5．Political Considerations64

6．Fitting the Document Into an Existing Body of Law65

7．Legal Limits66

8．Legislative History69

9．Form,Style,and Usage70

D．The Parts of a Statute70

1．Title71

2．Enacting Clause71

3．Short Title Section72

4．Findings72

5．Definitions73

6．Substantive Provisions73

7．Enforcement Mechanisms73

8．Remedies or Penalties74

9．Housekeeping Provisions75

E．Amending Statutes77

1．When Are Amendments Drafted?77

2．The Parts of an Amendment78

3．What Amendments Do79

4．AmendmentsChanging a Judicial Interpretation or Construction82

Chapter 4:The Rules of Interpretation85

A．Statutory Rules86

B．Common Law Rules88

1．Intent Controls89

a．The Plain Meaning or Four Corners Rule89

b．The Mischief Rule and Other Evidences of Intent91

c．Effect on Drafters92

2．The Rule of Strict Construction94

a．Criminal Statutes94

b．Statutes in Derogation of the Common Law95

c．Statutes Depriving a Court of Jurisdiction95

d．Statutes in Derogation of Sovereignty96

3．The Rule of Liberal Construction97

4．The Rule of Expressio Unius Est Exclusio Alterius97

5．The Rule of Ejusdem Generis100

6．The Rule of Noscitur a Sociis102

7．The Rule of Reddendo Singula Singulis103

8．The Rule of Last Modification104

9．The Rule That Handwritten Words Prevail Over Typed or Printed Words104

10．The Rule That Written Amounts Prevail Over Arabic Number Amounts105

11．The Rule That Specific Statutes Prevail Over General Statutes106

12．The Borrowed Language Rule106

13．The Rule Favoring Agency Interpretation107

14．The Rule That a Document Must Be Read as a Whole108

15．The Rule of Construing Statutes in Pari Materia108

16．Tne Rule Disfavoring Repeals By Implication110

17．The Rule of Lex Posterior Derogat Priori111

18．The Rule of Construing a Document Against the Drafter111

19．The Rule of Adopting a Construction That Favors Validity112

20．The Rule Favoring the Construction of Contracts in a Manner Consistent With Public Policy113

Chapter 5:Drafting Ethics114

A．Solicitation114

1．Advertising Specialization or Concentration115

2．Mass Mailings115

3．Solicitation of Former Clients,Family,and Friends115

B．Competence and Diligence116

C．Scope of Representation118

1．Objectives and Means118

2．Criminal,Fraudulent,and Prohibited Transactions120

D．Communication123

E．Fees124

F．Confidentiality125

1．Ethical Requirements125

2．Attorney-Client Privilege127

G．Conflict of Interest129

1．Representation Against a Current Client129

2．Representation Against a Former Client134

3．Imputed Disqualification135

4．Former Government Lawyer-Drafters137

H．Dealings With Third Parties137

I．Litigation Ethics139

J．Abetting the Unauthorized Practice of Law140

K．Providing Free Drafting Services141

Chapter 6:An Overview143

A．Determine the Client's Objectives143

B．Identify the Audience145

C．Explore the Broader Legal and Factual Context of the Document146

D．Research the Law149

E．Determine Substance150

F．Get the Facts151

G．Identify the Proper Legal and Factual Concepts152

H．Develop an Organization153

I．Write the Document155

1．Ambiguities155

2．Rules of Style and Usage156

3．Definitions156

4．Terms Creating Legal Consequences157

5．Format157

J．Review the Document for Substance and Style158

K．Post-Execution Monitoring159

PART Ⅱ．PREPARATION AND PLANNING160

Chapter 7:Getting Started160

A．Determine Client Objectives160

1．The Basic Question160

2．How the Information Is Used162

3．Objectives From a Variety of Perspectives164

a．Other Parties to the Transaction164

b．Scope of Anticipated Use165

c．Multiple-Client Objectives166

4．Evaluating Client Objectives168

B．Know the Audience169

1．Identify the Audience170

2．Characteristics of the Audience171

3．Accommodating the Various Audiences173

C．Determine the Context of the Document174

1．Legal Context174

2．Factual Context177

Chapter8:Drafting Within the Law180

A．Form180

B．Meaning183

C．Substance185

1．Prohibition185

2．Requirement186

3．Permission and Authorization187

4．Denial of Permission or Authorization188

5．Other Consequences188

6．Implied Terms188

D．Creating Legal Checklists189

E．Drafting With Statutory Language in Mind190

Chapter 9:Determining Substance194

A．Types of Provisions194

1．Required194

2．Going to the Essence of the Transaction195

3．Extremely Important196

4．Optional197

B．Substantive Term Checklists197

1．Commercially Prepared198

2．Drafter Prepared198

C．The Elements of a Legal Rule209

1．The Person209

2．The Conduct210

3．The Object of the Action210

4．The Circumstances210

5．Consequences211

D．Substantive Gaps213

Chapter 10:Choosing the Right Concept218

A．Definition218

B．The Importance of Concepts in Drafting219

C．Types of Concepts219

1．Legal Concepts219

2．Factual Concepts221

a．General Versus Specific222

b．Vague Versus Precise227

c．Abstract Versus Concrete234

d．Summary236

D．Choosing the Right Word to Reflect the Concept237

Chapter 11:Organization238

A．Division238

B．Classification243

C．Sequence245

1．Chronological245

2．Importance247

3．Frequency of Occurrence247

4．Familiar Before Unfamiliar247

5．Rules Before Exceptions248

6．What Before How248

7．Substance Before Procedure248

PART Ⅲ．DRAFTING TECHNIQUES250

Chapter12:Avoiding Ambiguities250

A．Definition250

B．The Consequences of Ambiguity250

C．Types of Ambiguity252

1．Contextual Ambiguity252

2．Semantic Ambiguity256

a．Homonyms257

b．And259

c．Or263

d．And/Or265

e．Specific Dates268

f．Time Spans271

g．Days,Weeks,Months,and Years273

h．Bimonthly,biannually,bienially,semimonthly,and semiannually276

i．Hours276

i．Relational Words277

k．Ages278

l．Provided that279

m．Legalese280

n．Shall281

o．Among and between282

3．Syntactic Ambiguity283

a．Pronoun Reference284

b．Modifiers285

c．Participals290

d．Chain Prepositions290

e．Negative Pregnants291

f．If...then Sentences291

g．Because Clauses295

h．Unless Clauses295

i．Only297

j．Truncated Passive298

k．Which and that299

l．Plural Nouns301

m．Commas and Semi-Colons303

Chapter 13:Drafting Style＆Usage309

A．Consistency309

1．Consistent Terminology310

2．Consistent Grammatical Structure311

3．Consistent Document Structure and Approach313

B．Concision315

1．Unnecessary Content315

2．Repetitious Substance316

3．Redundant Couplets,Triplets,and Other Chain Synonyms318

4．Other Redundant Expressions325

5．Legalese326

6．Compound Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases331

7．The fact that334

8．Rhetorical and Transitional Words and Phrases335

9．Of the Phrases337

10．Unnecessary who's,which's,and that's338

11．Redundant Numeration340

12．Expletives342

13．Nominalizations343

14．Passive Voice345

15．To be Verbs346

C．Clarity and Simplicity348

1．Short Sentences348

2．Simple Sentence Structure348

3．Present Tense351

4．Simple,Ordinary Words351

5．Terms of Art355

6．Technical and Trade Terms357

7．Foreign Words and Phrases359

8．Words Ending in-ee and-or360

9．Compound Adjectives and Noun Phrases360

10．Unconventional Capitalization361

11．Unusual Word Order361

12．Positive Versus Negative Expression362

13．Exceptions363

14．Personal Pronouns364

15．Split Infinitives365

D．Gender Specific Language366

Chapter 14:Definitions374

A．General Principles of Usage375

1．Terms With Established Meanings376

2．Terms of Art and Technical Terms376

3．Humpty-Dumpty Definitions377

4．Circular Definitions379

5．One-Shot Definitions380

6．Definitional Mazes382

B．Substantive Matters384

C．Definitions Incorporated By Reference387

D．Types of Definitions and Terminology388

1．Vest Pocket Definitions388

2．Full Definitions390

3．Partial Definitions393

a．Enlarging Definitions393

b．Limiting Definitions394

4．Combining Full and Partial Definitions395

5．Examples396

E．Methodology398

1．Use More Familiar Terms398

2．Use More Precise Terms398

3．Identify Components398

4．Identify Specific Referents399

5．Indicate Relationship to a Larger Unit399

F．Location400

G．When to Draft Definitions401

H．Testing Definitions402

Chapter 15:Terms Creating Legal Consequences405

A．The Importance of These Terms405

B．Identifying and Creating the Appropriate Legal Consequences406

C．The Lack of Unitformity407

D．The Suggested Conventions410

1．Duties410

a．Statutory Duties410

b．Privately Created Duties413

2．Negation of Duties414

3．Rights416

4．Negation of Rights417

5．Surrendering Rights or Causes of Action418

6．Privileges419

7．Negation of Privileges421

8．Immunity422

9．Conditions422

a．Definition and Types422

b．Terminology425

10．Exceptions426

11．Terms of Assurance or Warranty427

12．Disclaimer of Warranties428

13．Legal Import429

E．Summary429

F．When Not to Follow These Conventions431

Chapter 16:Document Typography and Layout433

A．Physical Appearance433

1．White Space434

2．Type Size and Font434

3．All Capitals and Underlining436

4．Line Length437

5．Justification440

6．Line Spacing440

7．Blank Spaces441

B．Text441

1．Table of Contents442

2．Numbered Pages442

3．Numbered or Lettered Paragraph Headings443

4．Lists445

5．Enumerations446

6．Tabbing450

7．Charts and Graphs451

8．Computations453

Chapter 17:Reviewing and Revising Drafted Documents455

A．Prepare a Flowchart456

B．Review for Substance465

1．Review By the Drafter465

2．Review By Someone Else466

3．Preparing a Summary467

4．Review By the Client468

C．Review for Style and Usage468

D．Proofread the Document474