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CHAPTER 1 A Remnant of the Renaissance: The Transnational Iconography of Justice1

A PICTORIAL PUZZLE1

A VIRTUOUS VISUAL COMPETITION8

The Cardinal and Theological Virtues in a Psychomachia8

The Cohort9

Justice’s Ascent12

JUSTICE’S VIOLENCE12

VISUALIZING JUSTICE’S PAIN AND CHALLENGES13

ADJUDICATION’S TRANSFORMATION: ACCESS FOR ALL BEFORE INDEPENDENT JUDGES IN OPEN COURTS14

Celebrating and Understanding New Demands15

Building Idioms: Transparency, Access, Identity, and Security15

DEMOCRACY’S CHALLENGES16

Privatizing Process and Controlling Access16

The Decline of Adjudication16

RE-PRESENTING JUSTICE17

CHAPTER 2 Civic Space, the Public Square, and Good Governance18

A LONG POLITICAL PEDIGREE: SHAMASH, MAAT, DIKE, AND THEMIS18

The Scales of Babylonia and of the Zodiac18

The Balance in Egyptian Books of the Dead20

Embodied Greek and Roman Goddesses21

JUSTICIA, ST.MICHAEL, AND THE CARDINAL VIRTUE JUSTICE22

CIVIC SPACES, ALLEGORIES OF GOOD AND BAD GOVERNMENT, AND FOURTEENTH-CENTURY SIENA25

Public Buildings Fashioning Civic Identities25

Lorenzetti and the Palazzo Pubblico26

“Love justice, you who judge the earth”28

Justice Bound by Tyranny29

Theories of Governance: Aristotle, Cicero, Aquinas, Latini, God, and Political Propaganda29

Good Government on the East and West Coasts of the United States: Reiterations by Caleb Ives Bach and Dorothea Rockburne30

LAST JUDGMENTS IN TOWN HALLS33

Civic, Public, and Christian33

“For that judgment you judge, shall redound on you”: The Magdeburg Mandate34

Conflating the Last Judgment with Trials34

CHAPTER 3 Obedience: The Judge as the Loyal Servant of the State38

FLAYED ALIVE OR MAIMED: JUDICIAL OBLIGATIONS INSCRIBED ON TOWN HALL.WALLS IN BRUGES AND GENEVA38

Controlling Judges: A Fifteenth-Century Cambyses in the Town Hall of Bruges38

Bribes, Gifts, and Budgets39

Skeptical about Law and Distrustful of Judges42

The Unjust Prince: Plutarchs Theban Judges and Alciatus’s Emblems43

Dogs, Snakes, and Virgins: Even-handedness in Ripa’s Iconologia43

Hands Cut: Disfigured Judges and Regal Justices for Sixteenth-Century Geneva44

Judicial Subservience and Dependence47

THE CHALLENGE AND PAIN OF RENDERING JUDGMENT: AMSTERDAM’S SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY TOWN HALL48

An “undertaking of megalomanic proportions”48

The Virtues of Prosperity: Justice, Peace, and Prudence Reigning over an Expanding Municipality49

“The free state flourishes, when the people honor the laws”51

Harming Your Children in the Name of the Law: Solomon, Zaleucus, Brutus, and Death55

The Judgment of Solomon56

The Blinding of Zaleucus and His Son and the Execution of Brutus’s Children57

“SO SHALL YOU BE JUDGED”61

CHAPTER 4 Of Eyes and Ostriches62

BLIND TO THE LIGHT AND BLINDFOLDED BY THE FOOL62

The Blindfolded Justice in the Amsterdam Tribunal62

“Open the eyes that are blind”64

Synagoga: Blind to the “Light” of Christianity65

Justice and Judges as Fools67

Alciatus’s Theban Judges and Ripas Injunctions: “A Steely Gaze,” the Eye of God, and Bandaged Eyes69

Bruegel’s Justice （or Injustice?）70

Damhoudere’s Janus-Faced Justice72

Turning a Critical Eye74

TRANSCENDENT, WIDE-EYED, AND AMIDST THE ANIMALS75

Raphael’s Glory of Justice75

Symbolism’s Caprice: The Many Animals of Justice76

The Proud and the Dead Bird: Giulio Romano’s Justice with an Ostrich in the Vatican and Luca Giordano’s Justice Disarmed76

Sheep and Foxes, Dogs and Serpents: Rubens’s Wide-Eyed Justice79

THE PAST AS PROLOGUE: SIGHTED OR BLINDFOLDED, AND TALL79

Venice as Justice, Justice as Venice79

Across the English Channel83

Queen Anne as Justice83

The Lord Mayor’s Show84

Dublin’s Justice85

Old Bailey’s Open-Eyed and Wide-Armed Justice87

Across the Atlantic Ocean: Kansas’s Sharp-Eyed Prairie Falcon and Vancouver’s Peaceable Justice87

A RESILIENT, ALBEIT INVENTED, TRADITION89

CHAPTER 5 Why Eyes? Color, Blindness, and Impartiali91

ICONOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS, PICTORIAL PUZZLES, AND JUSTICE’S BLINDFOLD91

Commitments to Representation91

Impossible to Depict: An Exchange between Mantegna and Momus93

Creating the Canonical Elements94

Sight, Knowledge, and Impartiality95

“Suppose a Man born blind&be made to see”: Locke, Diderot, and Molyneux’s Problem97

Rawlsian Veiling98

Ambiguity and Self-Help: Joshua Reynolds’s Justice in Oxford and Diana Moore’s Justice in New Hampshire98

CONSTITUTIONAL METAPHORS AND INJUSTICES102

Color-Blind102

Impartial or Unjust? The “Festering Sores” behind the Blindfold in Langston Hughes’s Justice103

Confrontation, Eyewitnesses, Prison Garb, Spectators’ Badges, and Ostrich Imagery104

CHAPTER 6 Representations and Abstractions: Identity, Politics, and Rights106

JURIDICAL RIGHTS AND ICONOGRAPHY106

Public Art and Popular Dismay106

Batcolumns and Mariannes107

BREACHING THE CONVENTIONS OF JUSTICE WHEN DECORATING THE PUBLIC SPHERE108

Unblindfolded: A “Communist” Justice Raises a “Newark Row”108

Hiding a “Mulatto Justice” in Aiken, South Carolina110

Life in Mississippi, Draped113

An “Indian” Hung in Boise116

Muhammad in Midtown and at the United States Supreme Court117

Lady of Justice but No Moco Jumbie in the Virgin Islands121

The Safety of Abstraction: Ellsworth Kelly in Boston124

JUDGING JUDGES: FROM SPECTATOR TO CRITICAL OBSERVER126

The Appearance of Impartiality127

Duck Blinds in 2004128

Restructuring Law’s Possibilities130

Systemic Unfairness in Individualized Justice131

Structural Interventions: Judicial Task Forces on Bias in the Courts132

GLIMPSING THE GAPS133

CHAPTER 7 From Seventeenth-Century Town Halls to Twentieth-Century Courts134

PUBLIC AND SOCIAL TRADITIONS IN TOWN AND COUNTRY COURTS134

BUILDING A NEW LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES136

A Grounding in Colonial and State Court Systems136

Purpose-Built Structures: From Houses and Taverns to Courts136

Segregating Interiors by Roles and Race136

Architecture and Adornment137

Juridical Privilege, Exclusion, and Protest137

Marking a “Federal Presence”139

Borrowing Space, Rules, and Administrative Support140

Custom Houses, Marine Hospitals, and Post Offices140

Professional Architects and Public Patronage142

Courts—From California to the New York Island142

Statehood for Texas and a New Federal Building in Galveston143

Building and Rebuilding in Des Moines and Biloxi144

Moving Further, Farther, and Higher145

Westward Expansion: Denver, Missoula, and San Diego145

Offshore and Across Land: Puerto Rico and Alaska147

Sky High in New York City149

ARCHITECTURAL STATEMENTS AND OBSOLESCENCE152

CHAPTER 8 A Building and Litigation Boom in Twentieth-Century Federal Courts154

INSTITUTIONAL GIRTH: IN-HOUSE ADMINISTRATION, RESEARCH, AND A CORPORATE VOICE154

William Howard Taft’s Innovations154

Building the Administrative Apparatus155

“Court Quarters”156

PUTTING CASES INTO COURTS: THE SECOND RECONSTRUCTION157

Rights across the Board157

From a Three-Story Courthouse in Grand Forks to Twenty-Eight Floors in St.Louis and 760,000 Square Feet in Boston158

Housing the Corporate Judiciary161

REDESIGNING FEDERAL BUILDINGS163

The Peripheral Role of “Fine Art”163

John F.Kennedy, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, and Government Space: The 196os Guiding Principles164

Inelegant Design: The National Endowment for the Arts as Architectural Critic165

Subsequent Precepts: Preservation, Conservation, Accessibility, Sociability, and Security166

GSAs Design Excellence Program168

CHAPTER 9 Late Twentieth-Century United States Courts: Monumentality, Security, and Eclectic Imagery169

RENOVATION, RENT, AND WILLIAM REHNQUIST169

“Judicial Space Emergencies”169

Court Design Guides171

Rescaling the Proportions171

Routing Circulation to Avoid Contact173

Dedicated Courtrooms174

Negotiating Rent and Space174

Cutting into the Judicial Dollar176

Inter-Agency, Inter-Branch Oversight or Intrusion178

“Rent Relief’178

A Courtroom of One’s Own180

Judicial Political Acumen and Incongruity: The Rehnquist Judiciary’s Monuments to Federal Adjudication181

“ART-IN-ARCHITECTURE”182

Selecting Community-Friendly Art to “stand the test of time”183

Collaborative Diversity183

Quietly Quizzical: Tom Otterness in Portland, Oregon and Jenny Holzer in Sacramento, California184

“Plop art” and Building Norms191

CHAPTER 10 Monuments to the Present and Museums of the Past: National Courts （and Prisons）193

COMPARATIVE CURRENTS193

Singularly Impressive, Diverse, and Homogeneous193

The Business of Building Courts: The Academy of Architecture for Justice194

JUSTICE PALACES FOR FRANCE195

Legible Architecture for an Evolving Justice195

“Le 1 1642448ecoratif”200

Jean Nouvel and Jenny Holzer in Nantes204

CREATING NEW SYMBOLS OF NATIONHOOD: A SUPREME COURT BUILDING FOR ISRAEL208

“Circles of Justice” and Laws That Are “Straight”209

Roman Cardos, British Courtyards, Moorish Arches, and Jerusalem Stone210

Judgment at the Gate213

“The Symbols”213

Reiterating Familiar Motifs215

NEW AND RECYCLED FROM MELBOURNE TO HELSINKI216

“Australian in concept and materials”: Melbourne’s Commonwealth Law Courts216

From a Liquor Factory to a District Court in Helsinki220

“JUSTICE FACILITIES”: JAILS, PRISONS, AND COURTS222

CHAPTER 11 Constructing Regional Rights225

JUDGING ACROSS BORDERS225

“MIXED COURTS,’ THE SLAVE TRADE, AND SPECIAL VENUES FOR FOREIGNERS225

NATION-STATES ALLIED THROUGH COURTS227

Luxembourg and the European Court of Justice227

Enduring （and Expanding） Authority: Le Palais Plus228

Dominique Perrault’s Golden “morphological development”229

“Under the watchful eye of paintings and sculptures”233

Strasbourg and the European Court of Human Rights235

Le Palais des Droits de L’Homme235

Building-in Expansion （for Space and Rights）237

Richard Rogers’s “monumental cylinders”237

“Easier to see your neighbor’s human rights violations than your own”238

The ECtHR and the ECJ: The Form of Resources239

Regional Law: The Organization of American States and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights239

The 1907 Central American Court of Justice: A “permanent court of justice”240

Shaping a Pan-American Convention on Human Rights242

Parallels and Distinctions: Human Rights Adjudication in Europe and the Americas243

Costa Rica and the Inter-American Court: Linked “not only by conviction, but by action”246

Engineering a $600,000 Renovation246

CHAPTER 12 Multi-Jurisdictional Premises: From Peace to Crimes247

MODELING THE FUTURE: EPIC ARCHITECTURE AND LONELY BUILDINGS247

THE PEACE PALACE AND THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE248

Convening for Peace249

The Amsterdam Town Hall Redux: “Dutch High-Renaissance Architecture” for the World’s Library and Court249

Competing and Litigating for Building Commissions249

National Artifacts for the World Court253

Tribunals to Which No Country Can Be “Bidden”255

The Misnomer of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the Puzzles of International Adjudication255

The Small Hall of Justice and the PCA256

The League of Nations’ Permanent Court of International Justice257

Nationality and Judicial Selection257

Inaugurating the “World Court” and the Hague Academy for International Law259

Lawmaking through Advisory Opinions and Contentious Cases259

The Great Hall of Justice and the United Nations’ International Court of Justice261

Nationality’s Continuing Import261

A Celebratory Iconography262

Renovations, Modernization, and Expansion: Carnegie’s Library at Last263

A Home for Living Law or a Museum?264

TRANSNATIONAL COURTS WITH SPECIALIZED JURISDICTIONS265

An International Tribunal for the Sea, Seated in Hamburg265

A “Constitution for the Oceans”267

Alternatives for International Disputes about the Sea268

Form before Function269

International Human Atrocities272

The International Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone272

Designing for a Future of Crimes: The International Criminal Court275

Operationalizing a Criminal Court System277

Occupying Permanent Quarters Rather Than Riding Circuit279

“One site forever”: A Timeless Image and Four Security Zones280

THE LOGOS OF JUSTICE: BUDGETS, CASELOADS, SCALES, AND BUILDINGS281

CHAPTER 13 From “Rites” to “Rights”288

THE TRIUMPH OF COURTS288

THE DEMOCRACY IN ADJUDICATION289

“Hear the Other Side”289

“Judges as free, impartial, and independent as the lot of humanity will admit”292

“That justice may not be done in a corner nor in any covert manner”293

Reflexivity: Transnational Signatures of Justice294

THEORIZING OPENNESS: FROM UNRULY CROWDS TO BENTHAM’S “PUBLICITY”295

Observing and Cabining Authority: The Dissemination of Knowledge through Codification and Publicity296

The Architecture of Discipline: From “Judge & Co.” to the Panopticon297

FORMING PUBLIC OPINION THROUGH COMPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS: AN UNCENSORED PRESS AND A SUBSIDIZED POSTAL SYSTEM299

DEVELOPING PUBLIC SPHERE（S）299

ADJUDICATION AS A DEMOCRATIC PRACTICE301

The Power of Participatory Observers to Divest Authority from Judges and Litigants301

Public Relations in Courts302

Dignifying Litigants: Information-Forcing through Participatory Parity303

THE PRESS, THE POST, AND COURTS: VENERABLE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY INSTITUTIONS VULNERABLE IN THE TWENTY-FIRST304

CHAPTER 14 Courts: In and Out of Sight, Site, and Cite306

ADJUDICATION’S CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY306

Demand and Distress307

The Data on Privatization: The Vanishing Trial310

The Methods of Privatization311

Managerial Judges Settling Cases311

Unheard Arguments and “Unpublished” Opinions313

Devolution: Administrative Agencies as Courts314

Outsourcing through Mandatory Private Arbitration318

REGULATORY OPTIONS: PUBLIC ACCESS TO ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION321

MULTI-JURISDICTIONAL PREMISES （AGAIN）322

Tracking, Managing, and Obliging Mediation: Lord Woolf’s Reforms in England and Wales322

Outsourcing to Tribunals324

Competing for Transnational Arbitration324

Mediation under the Direction of the European Union325

TRANSNATIONAL PROCEDURAL SHIFTS326

THE CONTINUUM ON WHICH GUANTANAMO BAY SITS327

The Appointing Authority’s Adjudicatory Discretion327

Court-Like, Court-Lite: “Honor Bound to Defend Freedom”328

FOUCAULT’S FOOTSTEPS334

CHAPTER 15 An Iconography for Democratic Adjudication338

TRANSITIONAL AND TRANSNATIONAL IDIOMS338

SYMBOLIC COURTS WITH FACADES OF GLASS340

Opaque Transparency341

The Politics of Glass341

Zones of Authority342

REPLENISHING THE VISUAL VOCABULARY344

An Interdependent Collective: The Cardinal Four of Justice, Prudence, Temperance, and Fortitude344

The Burdens of Judging: The Nails of a Nkisi Figure348

FACING JUSTICE’S INJUSTICE349

Nelson Mandela’s Jail as South Africa’s Constitutional Court350

Aiming to Capture the Humanity of Social Interdependence350

Prison Vistas of Barbed Wire352

Splashes of Color and References to Oppression355

The Challenge of Crime and Caseloads355

Visually Recording （in）Justice in Mexico’s Supreme Court356

Mexican Muralists, Orozco, and “Profoundly National” Paintings356

George Biddle’s Redemption from the Horrors of War361

Cauduro’s Vision: Torture, Homicide, and Other Crimes, Unpunished362

Impunity and Insecurity365

OPEN TENTS, TATTERED COATS, AND THE CHALLENGES ENTAILED IN DEMOCRATIC PROMISES OF JUSTICE366

“If performed in the open air”: The Federal Court of Australia’s Ruling on the Ngaanyatjarra Land Claims367

Terra nullius and the Native Title Act367

Commemorating Power, Witnessing Compromise369

An Icon of Free Legal Services in Minnesota372

More Courthouses than Counties372

A Jacket, Worn373

FACETS OF JUDGMENT374

ENDNOTES379

NOTE ON SOURCES603

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY607

Books, Monographs, Articles, and Dissertations607

Caselaw626

International Conventions and Treaties627

INDEX OF IMAGES629

Painters, Printmakers, and Engravers629

Sculptors629

Photographers630

Cartoonists631

Buildings631

Logos and Seals632

Brochures and Other Objects632

Graphs and Charts632

SUBJECT INDEX633

Color plates follow page142