Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载

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Introduction1

Part Ⅰ Background to the erga omnes concept17

1 Clarifications19

1.1 Countermeasures and ICJ proceedings19

1.2 The notion of standing25

1.2.1 Standing as a normative concept28

1.2.2 Standing as a flexible concept32

1.2.3 The diversity of rules governing standing36

1.2.4 Interim conclusions40

1.3 Standing to enforce individual legal positions40

1.3.1 The basis of the distinction41

1.3.2 Categories of individual legal positions42

1.3.2.a Bilateral legal rules and similar situations42

1.3.2.b Special injury44

1.4 Concluding observations46

2 Traditional approaches to standing48

2.1 Restrictive tendencies52

2.1.1 A structural analysis of multilateral obligations53

2.1.1.a Three categories of obligations54

2.1.1.b The legal regime58

2.1.2 A restrictive interpretation of treaty provisions： the South West Africa case63

2.2 Expansive tendencies69

2.2.1 Treaty-based rules of standing70

2.2.1.a Unequivocal treaty clauses71

2.2.1.b Equivocal clauses broadly interpreted： the Wimbledon case76

2.2.2 The position in the absence of special treaty regulations80

2.2.2.a Interdependent obligations80

2.2.2.b Status treaties80

Background81

Standing to react against breaches83

2.2.2.c The duty to comply with judgments of the International Court of Justice87

2.2.2.d Basic humanitarian standards89

2.3 Concluding observations94

Part Ⅱ Legal issues raised by the erga omnes concept97

3 Distinguishing types of erga omnes effects99

3.1 Terminological imprecision101

3.2 The traditional meaning of the term103

3.3 ‘Other’ erga omnes effects in the ICJ’s jurisprudence106

3.3.1 The traditional meaning107

3.3.2 The territorial restriction of obligations110

3.3.3 The descriptive function112

3.4 Concluding observations115

4 Identifying obligations erga omnes117

4.1 The question of sources120

4.1.1 The Court’s jurisprudence121

4.1.2 Further considerations123

4.2 Distinguishing obligations erga omnes from other customary obligations128

4.2.1 The structural approach130

4.2.1.a The strong version131

4.2.1.b The moderate version133

4.2.1.c Interim conclusion135

4.2.2 The material approach136

4.2.2.a The point of reference136

4.2.2.b The required threshold of importance138

Obligations erga omnes and norms of jus cogens139

The merits of a comparative approach141

Implications for the erga omnes concept146

Interim conclusion151

Beyond jus cogens： obligation erga omnes not deriving from peremptory norms151

Dispositive obligations erga omnes？152

Relevant factors153

4.3 Concluding observations156

5 Standing to institute ICJ proceedings158

5.1 The Barcelona Traction dictum162

5.2 Possible counter-arguments165

5.2.1 Isolated pronouncements？165

5.2.2 An obiter dictum lacking legal relevance？167

5.2.3 The international community as the exclusive beneficiary？173

5.2.4 Contradictions within the judgment？176

5.2.5 Inconclusive jurisprudence since 1970？179

5.2.5.a The Nuclear Tests cases180

5.2.5.b The East Timor case182

Obligations erga omnes and the indispensable third-party rule183

The issue of standing185

5.2.5.c The Genocide case187

5.2.5.d The Nicaragua case187

5.2.5.e The Gabcikovo case190

5.2.5.f Summary192

5.2.6 A restrictive， contextual interpretation？193

5.3 Concluding observations196

6 Standing to take countermeasures198

6.1 The Court’s jurisprudence201

6.1.1 The Barcelona Traction case202

6.1.2 The Namibia and Hostages cases204

6.1.3 The Nicaragua case205

6.1.4 Interim conclusions207

6.2 International practice207

6.2.1 Specific instances of state practice208

6.2.1.a Actual violations209

Western countries - Uganda （1971-1978）210

European countries - Liberia （1980）211

G77 and socialist countries - colonial regimes （1970s-1990s）211

Western countries - Poland （1981）213

United States - Soviet Union （1981）214

Western countries - Argentina （1982）215

Western countries - Soviet Union （1983）217

Western countries - South Africa （1985-1986）217

Various countries - Iraq （1990）219

European and Commonwealth countries - Nigeria （1995）220

African States - Burundi （1996）221

European countries - Yugoslavia （1998）223

Various countries - Zimbabwe （2002-2003）224

6.2.1.b Statements implying a right to take countermeasures225

G7 declarations on aircraft hijacking （1978/1981）225

Western countries - Iran （1979-1980）226

6.2.1.c Actual non-compliance justified differently227

Netherlands-Surinam （1982）227

European countries-Yugoslavia （1991）228

6.2.1.d An assessment228

A preliminary evaluation230

Counter-arguments examined231

The relevance of the erga omnes concept232

The selectivity of practice234

The dominance of western practice235

A lack of opinio juris237

The requirement of collective action240

Interim conclusion241

6.2.2 Governments’ comments on the ILC’s work on State responsibility241

6.2.2.a Comments made during the first reading242

6.2.2.b Comments made during the second reading245

6.2.2.c Interim conclusions248

6.3 Concluding observations249

7 Erga omnes enforcement rights and competing enforcement mechanisms252

7.1 Identifying areas of conflict256

7.1.1 Overlapping legal rules256

7.1.2 Different enforcement rights258

7.1.2.a Treaty-based systems of enforcement： a survey259

7.1.2.b Specific types of conflict261

7.2 Addressing conflicts263

7.2.1 Contracting out of decentralised enforcement by States263

7.2.1.a Direct recourse by individuals263

7.2.1.b Institutional enforcement264

7.2.1.c Summary268

7.2.2 Contracting out of specific forms of decentralised enforcement268

7.2.2.a General considerations268

The exclusivity thesis269

Alleged support in international jurisprudence269

Its rejection271

Guidelines for the analysis of specific conflicts276

Explicit conflict rules276

Effectivity277

Formal indications of effectivity278

The character of the breach278

Summary279

7.2.2.b Contracting out of ICJ proceedings279

Non-exclusivity clauses280

Implied non-exclusivity282

Flexible exclusivity clauses283

Interim conclusion286

7.2.2.c Contracting out of countermeasures286

No inter-State procedures available288

Inter-State procedures available289

Non-judicial procedures289

Judicial procedures291

Interim conclusion299

7.2.3 Special factors restricting treaty enforcement300

7.2.3.a Article 51 UNC300

7.2.3.b The effects of reservations302

7.3 Concluding observations304

Conclusion306

Epilogue312

Bibliography339

Index378