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PART Ⅰ ORIGINS AND FOUNDATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY3

1 THE MAIN LEGAL FEATURES OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY3

1.1 Introduction3

1.2 The nature of international legal subjects3

1.3 The lack of a central authority， and decentralization of legal ‘functions’5

1.4 Collective responsibility6

1.5 The need for most international rules to be translated into national legislation9

1.6 The range of States’ freedom of action10

1.7 The overriding role of effectiveness12

1.8 Traditional and individualistic trends and emerging community obligations and rights13

1.9 Coexistence of the old and new patterns21

2 THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY22

2.1 Introduction22

2.2 The emergence of the present international community before the Peace of Westphalia22

2.3 Stage 1： from the Peace of Westphalia to the end of the First World War25

2.4 Stage 2： from the First to the Second World War34

2.5 Stage 3： from the UN Charter to the end of the cold war39

2.6 Stage 4： from the end of the cold war to the present44

3 THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS46

3.1 Introduction46

3.2 The sovereign equality of States48

3.3 Non-intervention in the internal or external affairs of other States53

3.4 Prohibition of the threat or use of force55

3.5 Peaceful settlement of disputes58

3.6 Respect for human rights59

3.7 Self-determination of peoples60

3.8 Distinguishing traits of the fundamental principles64

3.9 The close link between the principles and the need for their co-ordination67

PART Ⅱ SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY71

4 STATES AS THE PRIMARY SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW71

4.1 Traditional and new subjects71

4.2 Commencement of the existence of States72

4.3 The role of recognition73

4.4 Continuity and termination of the existence of States77

5 THE SPATIAL DIMENSION OF STATE ACTIVITIES81

5.1 General81

5.2 Territory82

5.3 Sea84

5.4 The international seabed and the concept of the common heritage of mankind92

5.5 Air94

5.6 Outer space95

5.7 General observations96

6 LIMITATIONS ON STATE SOVEREIGNTY： IMMUNITIES AND TREATMENT OF INDIVIDUALS98

6.1 Introduction98

6.2 Immunity of foreign states from courts’ jurisdiction99

6.3 Immunities of organs of foreign States110

6.4 Immunities of diplomatic agents114

6.5 Immunities of consular agents116

6.6 Immunities of Heads of States and Government and senior members of cabinet117

6.7 Duration of privileges and immunities118

6.8 Personal immunities and international crimes119

6.9 Limitations upon a State’s treatment of foreigners and individuals120

7 OTHER INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SUBJECTS124

7.1 Insurgents124

7.2 Sui generis entities131

7.3 The reasons behind the emergence of new international subjects134

7.4 International organizations135

7.5 National liberation movements140

7.6 Individuals142

PART Ⅲ CREATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS153

8 INTERNATIONAL LAW-CREATION： CUSTOM153

8.1 Introductory remarks153

8.2 Custom156

8.3 Local customary rules163

8.4 The present role of custom165

8.5 Codification167

9 TREATIES170

9.1 General170

9.2 The ‘old’ and the ‘new’ law170

9.3 The making of treaties172

9.4 Reservations173

9.5 Grounds of invalidity176

9.6 Interpretation178

9.7 Termination180

10 OTHER LAWMAKING PROCESSES183

10.1 General183

10.2 Unilateral acts as sources of obligations184

10.3 Sources envisaged in international treaties185

10.4 General principles of law recognized by the community of nations，as a subsidiary source188

10.5 The impact of processes that technically are not law creating194

11 THE HIERARCHY OF RULES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW：THE ROLE OF JUS COGENS198

11.1 Traditional international law198

11.2 The emergence of jus cogens199

11.3 Establishment and scope of jus cogens201

11.4 Instances of peremptory norms202

11.5 Limitations of jus cogens as envisaged in the Vienna Convention203

11.6 Partial remedies to those limitations， provided by customary international law204

11.7 Legal effects of jus cogens205

11.8 The limited reliance on jus cogens in international dealings209

11.9 National cases using jus cogens as a ratio decidendi and national legislation relying upon the same notion210

12 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL RULES WITHIN NATIONAL SYSTEMS213

12.1 Relationship between international and national law213

12.2 International rules on implementing international law in domestic legal settings217

12.3 Trends emerging among the legal systems of States220

12.4 Techniques of implementation224

12.5 Statist views versus international outlook： emerging trends234

PART Ⅳ BREACHES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES241

13 INTERNATIONAL WRONGFUL ACTS AND THE LEGAL REACTION THERETO241

13.1 General241

13.2 Traditional law241

13.3 The current regulation of State responsibility： an overview243

13.4 ‘Ordinary’ State responsibility245

13.5 ‘Aggravated’ State responsibility262

13.6 Treaty regimes and customary law on aggravated responsibility275

13.7 The current minor role of aggravated responsibility277

14 PROMOTING COMPLIANCE WITH LAW AND PREVENTING OR SETTLING DISPUTES278

14.1 Introduction278

14.2 Traditional mechanisms for promoting agreement between disputants279

14.3 Traditional mechanisms for settling disputes by a binding decision281

14.4 The new law： an overview282

14.5 The general obligation to settle disputes peacefully283

14.6 Resort to traditional means284

14.7 Strengthening and institutionalization of traditional means286

14.8 The establishment of more flexible mechanisms for either preventing or settling disputes289

15 ENFORCEMENT296

15.1 Traditional law296

15.2 New trends following the First World War300

15.3 Enforcement of international rules in modern international law301

15.4 Retortion310

15.5 Collective enforcement （sanctions properly so called）310

PART Ⅴ CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW317

16 THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS317

16.1 The grand design of the post-Second World War period317

16.2 Goals and structure of the new organization320

16.3 Principal achievements and failures of the UN322

16.4 The current role of the UN336

17 UN SANCTIONS AND COLLECTIVE SECURITY339

17.1 Introduction339

17.2 Measures short of armed force340

17.3 Peacekeeping operations343

17.4 Resort to force by States upon authorization of the UN346

17.5 The use of force by regional and other organizations， upon authorization of the SC350

17.6 The authorization to use force given by the GA351

17.7 The old and the new law on force and collective security contrasted352

18 UNILATERAL RESORT TO FORCE BY STATES354

18.1 Introduction354

18.2 Individual self-defence354

18.3 Self-defence against armed infiltration and indirect aggression363

18.4 Collective self-defence365

18.5 Forcible protection of nationals abroad366

18.6 Armed intervention with the consent of the territorial State368

18.7 Armed reprisals against unlawful small-scale use of force371

18.8 Is resort to force to stop atrocities abroad legally admissible？373

18.9 May racial groups and peoples resort to force when self-determination is forcibly denied？374

19 THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS375

19.1 Introduction375

19.2 Traditional international law376

19.3 The turning point： the UN Charter377

19.4 Trends in the evolution of international action on human rights379

19.5 Human rights and customary international law393

19.6 The impact of human rights on traditional international law396

19.7 The present role of human rights396

20 LEGAL RESTRAINTS ON VIOLENCE IN ARMED CONFLICT399

20.1 Introduction399

20.2 Classes of war399

20.3 Traditional law in a nutshell400

20.4 Developments in modern armed conflict402

20.5 The new law： an overview404

20.6 The current regulation of international armed conflict405

20.7 The current regulation of internal armed conflict429

20.8 The role of law in restraining armed violence434

21 THE REPRESSION OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES435

21.1 Traditional law435

21.2 Modern law： international crimes436

21.3 International crimes and immunity from jurisdiction450

21.4 Prosecution and punishment by State courts451

21.5 Prosecution and punishment by international courts453

21.6 The establishment of so-called internationalized or mixed criminal courts or tribunals458

21.7 International trials： main merits460

21.8 The need for international criminal courts to rely upon State co-operation461

21.9 The main problems besetting international criminal proceedings461

22 THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO TERRORISM463

22.1 Introduction463

22.2 The interstate legal reaction to terrorism463

22.3 Hierarchy between types of responses to terrorism464

22.4 Peaceful responses465

22.5 Forcible responses to terrorist action469

22.6 Use of force against terrorism on the high seas or in international airspace476

22.7 Concluding remarks479

23 PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT482

23.1 Traditional law482

23.2 New developments in industry and technology485

23.3 The current regulation of protection of the environment487

23.4 Institutional bodies in charge of protection of the environment496

23.5 State responsibility and civil liability for environmental harm497

23.6 Liberalization of trade versus protection of the environment500

24 LEGAL ATTEMPTS AT NARROWING THE NORTH-SOUTH GAP503

24.1 The colonial relationship503

24.2 Main features of developing countries’ economic structure504

24.3 The most fundamental economic needs of developing countries506

24.4 The principal demands and the legal strategy of developing countries507

24.5 The action of the world community： general509

24.6 The role of international economic institutions510

24.7 Multilateral co-operation for development518

24.8 The promotion of foreign investment in developing countries523

24.9 A tentative stocktaking526

Index529