The Practice of Social Research 社会研究方法2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载

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IndexI1

Holographic Overview1

PART1

PART1

AppendixesA1

Contents in Detail1

Prefacexvi1

BibliographyB1

AppendixesA1

GlossaryG1

Using the LibraryA2

AUsing the LibraryA2

PART2

PART2

PART3

PART3

PART4

PART4

PART5

PART5

BSocial Research in CyberspaceA8

Social Research in CyberspaceA8

An Introduction to Inquiry14

An Introduction to Inquiry14

1Human Inquiry and Science16

The Research ReportA16

Human Inquiry and Science16

CThe Research ReportA16

Introduction17

Looking for Reality18

Ordinary Human Inquiry18

Tradition19

Authority19

Errors in Inquiry,and Some Solutions20

What s Really Real?21

GSS Household Enumeration23

QuestionnaireA23

DGSS Household Enumeration QuestionnaireA23

The Foundations of Social Science24

Theory,Not Philosophy or Belief25

Social Regularities25

Aggregates,Not Individuals27

A Variable Language28

Some Dialectics of Social Science33

ERandom NumbersA33

Random NumbersA33

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation33

Inductive and Deductive Theory34

FDistribution of Chi SquareA35

Distribution of Chi SquareA35

Qualitative and Quantitative Data36

The Ethics of Social Research37

Normal Curve AreasA37

GNormal Curve AreasA37

Estimated Sampling ErrorA38

HEstimated Sampling ErrorA38

No Harm to Subjects38

MAIN POINTS38

Voluntary Participation38

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES39

KEY TERMS39

A Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A40

ADDITIONAL READINGS40

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE40

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION40

2Paradigms,Theory,and Social Research41

Research41

Paradigms,Theory,and Social41

Introduction42

Some Social Science Paradigms42

Social Darwinsm44

Macrotheory and Microtheory44

Early Positivism44

Conflict Paradigm45

Symbolic Interactionism46

IA Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A46

Ethnomethodology46

Structural Functionalism47

Feminist Paradigms48

Rational Objectivity Reconsidered49

Elements of Social Theory51

Two Logical Systems Revisited53

The Traditional Model of Science53

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning:A CaseIllustration55

A Graphic Contrast58

Constructing Your Theory60

Deductive Theory Construction60

Getting Started60

An Example of Deductive Theory:61

Distributive Justice61

Inductive Theory Construction63

An Example of Inductive Theory:Why DoPeople Smoke Marijuana?63

The Links Between Theory and Research64

MAIN POINTS65

KEY TERMS66

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES66

ADDITIONAL READINGS66

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE67

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION67

The Idea of Causation in Social68

3The Idea of Causation in Social Research68

Research68

Finding Causes in Social Science69

Introduction69

Determinism and Social Science69

Causation in the Natural Sciences69

Reasons Have Reasons70

Determinism in Perspective71

Causation in Idiographic and NomotheticModels of Explanation72

Twenty Questions a Journalist Should75

Ask about Poll ResultsA75

JTwenty Questions a Journalist Should Askabout Poll ResultsA75

Criteria for Causality75

Necessary and Sufficient Causes78

Errors in Reasoning About Causation81

False Dilemma82

Suppressed Evidence82

Provincialism82

Hasty Conclusion82

Questionable Cause82

Associating Variables83

Practical Problems in Measuring and83

Linking Measurement and Association83

Association84

An Example of Measurement and84

MAIN POINTS85

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES86

KEY TERMS86

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION87

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE87

ADDITIONAL READINGS87

The Structure of Inquiry88

The Structure of Inquiry88

4Research Design90

Research Design90

Exploration91

Introduction91

Three Purposes of Research91

Explanation92

Description92

Units of Analysis94

Individuals95

Social Artifacts96

Groups96

Organizations96

Units of Analysis in Review97

and Reductionism100

Faulty Reasoning about Units100

of Analysis:The Ecological Fallacy100

Cross-Sectional Studies101

The Time Dimension101

Longitudinal Studies102

Approximating Longitudinal Studies104

Examples of Research Strategies106

How To Design a Research Project107

Conceptualization109

Getting Started109

Population and Sampling110

Choice of Research Method110

Operationalization110

Analysis111

Observations111

Data Processing111

Research Design in Review112

Application112

Elements of a Research Proposal113

The Research Proposal113

MAIN POINTS114

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES115

KEY TERMS115

ADDITIONAL READINGS116

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION117

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND117

EXERCISES,ITEM 2117

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE117

5Conceptualization,Operationalization,and Measurement118

Conceptualization,Operationaliza-118

tion,and Measurement118

Introduction119

Measuring Anything That Exists119

Conceptions,Concepts,and Reality120

Conceptions as Constructs121

Conceptualization122

Indicators and Dimensions123

The Interchangeability of Indicators124

Real,Nominal,and Operational124

Definitions124

Creating Conceptual Order125

An Example of Conceptualization:126

The Concept of Anomie126

Definitions in Descriptive and ExplanatoryStudies129

Operationalization Choices132

Range of Variation132

Variations between the Extremes133

A Note on Dimensions133

Defining Variables and Attributes134

Levels of Measurement134

Single or Multiple Indicators138

Some Illustrations of OperationalizationChoices138

Operationalization Goes On and On139

Criteria of Measurement Quality140

Precision and Accuracy140

Reliability140

Validity143

Who Decides What s Valid?144

Tension between Reliability and145

Validity145

MAIN POINTS145

KEY TERMS146

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES146

ADDITIONAL READINGS147

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE147

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION147

Indexes,Scales,and Typologies148

6Indexes,Scales,and Typologies148

Introduction149

Indexes versus Scales149

Index Construction152

Item Selection152

Examination of Empirical Relationships153

Index Scoring158

Handling Missing Data160

Index Validation162

The Status of Women:An Illustration164

of Index Construction164

Scale Construction165

Thurstone Scales166

Bogardus Social Distance Scale166

Likert Scaling167

Guttman Scaling168

Semantic Differential168

Typologies171

KEY TERMS173

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES173

MAIN POINTS173

ADDITIONAL READINGS174

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION174

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE174

The Logic of Sampling175

7The Logic of Sampling175

Introduction176

A Brief History of Sampling177

President Alf Landon177

Two Types of Sampling Methods178

President Thomas E.Dewey178

Nonprobability Sampling178

Reliance on Available Subjects179

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling179

Quota Sampling180

Snowball Sampling180

Selecting Informants181

The Theory and Logic of Probability182

Sampling Bias182

Conscious and Unconscious182

Sampling182

Representativeness and Probability184

of Selection184

Random Selection185

Probability Theory,Sampling Distributions,and Estimates of Sample Error186

Populations and Sampling Frames194

Frames196

Review of Populations and Sampling196

Simple Random Sampling197

Types of Sampling Designs197

Systematic Sampling197

Stratified Sampling201

Implicit Stratification in SystematicSampling202

Students203

Illustration:Sampling University203

Multistage Designs and Sampling Error204

Multistage Cluster Sampling204

Sampling205

Probability Proportionate to Size(PPS)Sampling205

Stratification in Multistage Cluster205

Disproportionate Sampling and208

Weighting208

Illustration:Sampling Churchwomen210

Probability Sampling in Review211

MAIN POINTS212

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES213

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE213

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION213

ADDITIONAL READINGS213

KEY TERMS213

Modes of Observation214

Modes of Observation214

8Experiments216

Experiments216

The Classical Experiment217

Introduction217

Topics Appropriate to Experiments217

Pretesting and Posttesting218

Independent and Dependent Variables218

Experimental and Control Groups219

The Double-Blind Experiment220

Selecting Subjects221

Probability Sampling221

Randomization222

Matching222

Matching or Randomization?223

Preexperimental Research Designs224

Variations on Experimental Design224

Research225

Validity Issues in Experimental225

An Illustration of Experimentation230

Natural Experiments232

Strengths and Weaknesses of the234

Experimental Method234

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES235

MAIN POINTS235

KEY TERMS235

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE236

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION236

ADDITIONAL READINGS236

Survey Research237

9Survey Research237

Introduction238

Topics Appropriate for Survey Research238

Choose Appropriate Question Forms239

Guidelines for Asking Questions239

Make Items Clear240

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions241

Respondents Must Be Competent241

to Answer241

Questions Should Be Relevant243

Short Items Are Best243

Answer243

Respondents Must Be Willing to243

Avoid Biased Items and Terms244

Avoid Negative Items244

Questionnaire Construction245

General Questionnaire Format245

Contingency Questions246

Formats for Respondents246

Matrix Questions248

Ordering Items in a Questionnaire249

Questionnaire Instructions249

Pretesting the Questionnaire250

Mail Distribution and Return253

Self-Administered Questionnaires253

A Composite Illustration253

Monitoring Returns254

Follow-up Mailings255

Acceptable Response Rates256

A Case Study257

Interview Surveys258

The Role of the Survey Interviewer258

Interviewing259

General Guidelines for Survey259

Coordination and Control261

Telephone Surveys262

Interviewing(CATI)265

Computer Assisted Telephone265

New Technologies and Survey Research265

Comparison of the Different Survey267

Methods267

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey268

Research268

Secondary Analysis269

MAIN POINTS270

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES271

KEY TERMS271

ADDITIONAL READINGS272

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION273

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE273

Qualitative Field Research274

10Qualitative Field Research274

Introduction275

Topics Appropriate to Field Research275

Special Considerations in Qualitative277

Field Research277

The Various Roles of the Observer278

Relations to Subjects279

Naturalism281

Some Qualitative Field Research281

Paradigms281

Ethnomethodology282

Grounded Theory284

Case Method285

Case Studies and the Extended285

Institutional Ethnography287

Participatory Action Research288

Preparing for the Field290

Conducting Qualitative Field Research290

Qualitative Interviewing291

Focus Groups294

Recording Observations295

Validity298

Strengths and Weaknesses of QualitativeField Research298

Reliability299

Research Ethics in Qualitative Field300

MAIN POINTS300

Research300

KEY TERMS301

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES301

ADDITIONAL READINGS301

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE302

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION302

11Unobtrusive Measures303

Unobtrusive Measures303

Introduction304

Content Analysis304

Sampling in Content Analysis305

Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis305

Coding in Content Analysis309

An Illustration of Content Analysis313

Analysis314

Strengths and Weaknesses of Content314

Durkheim s Study of Suicide315

Analyzing Existing Statistics315

Units of Analysis316

Problems of Reliability318

Problems of Validity318

Sources of Existing Statistics319

Examples of Historical/Comparative322

Analysis322

Historical/Comparative Analysis322

Sources of Historical/Comparative Data325

Analytical Techniques327

MAIN POINTS328

KEY TERMS329

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES329

ADDITIONAL READINGS329

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION330

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE330

Evaluation Research331

12Evaluation Research331

Introduction332

Topics Appropriate to Evaluation333

Research333

Formulating the Problem:Issues334

of Measurement334

Specifying Outcomes335

Measuring Experimental Contexts336

Specifying the Population336

Specifying Interventions336

New versus Existing Measures337

Operationalizing Success/Failure337

Types of Evaluation Research Designs338

Experimental Designs338

Quasi-Experimental Designs339

Qualitative Evaluations342

The Social Context344

Logistical Problems344

Some Ethical Issues346

Use of Research Results346

Social Indicators Research351

The Death Penalty and Deterrence352

Computer Simulation353

ADDITIONAL READINGS354

MAIN POINTS354

KEY TERMS354

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES354

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE355

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION355

Analysis of Data356

Analysis of Data356

Qualitative Data Analysis358

13Qualitative Data Analysis358

Introduction359

Linking Theory and Analysis359

Discovering Patterns359

Grounded Theory Method361

Semiotics362

Coding364

Conversation Analysis364

Qualitative Data Processing364

Memoing368

Concept Mapping369

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data370

Leviticus as Seen through NUD*IST371

Sandrine Zerbib:Understanding Women376

Film Directors376

MAIN POINTS380

KEY TERMS381

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES381

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE382

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION382

ADDITIONAL READINGS382

Quantifying Data383

14Quantifying Data383

Introduction384

Computers in Social Research384

Coding387

Developing Code Categories387

Codebook Construction389

Coding and Data Entry Options390

Transfer Sheets391

Edge-Coding391

Direct Data Entry391

Data Entry by Interviewers391

Connecting with a Data-Analysis392

Coding to Optical Scan Sheets392

Program392

Direct Use of Optical Scan Sheets392

Data Cleaning392

Possible-Code Cleaning393

Contingency Cleaning393

MAIN POINTS393

ADDITIONAL READINGS394

KEY TERMS394

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES394

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE395

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION395

15Elementary Quantitative Analyses396

Elementary Quantitative396

Analyses396

Introduction397

Univariate Analysis397

Distributions397

Central Tendency398

Dispersion401

Detail versus Manageability402

Continuous and Discrete Variables402

Subgroup Comparisons403

Collapsing Response Categories404

Handling Don t Knows404

Research406

Bivariate Analysis406

Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative406

Constructing and Reading Bivariate408

Percentaging a Table408

Tables408

Introduction to Multivariate Analysis412

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES414

KEY WORDS414

MAIN POINTS414

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE415

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION415

ADDITIONAL READINGS415

16The Elaboration Model416

The Elaboration Model416

Introduction417

The Origins of the Elaboration Model417

The Elaboration Paradigm421

Replication422

Explanation423

Interpretation425

Specification425

Refinements to the Paradigm428

Elaboration and Ex Post Facto430

Hypothesizing430

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES432

MAIN POINTS432

KEY TERMS432

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION433

ADDITIONAL READINGS433

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE433

Social Statistics434

17Social Statistics434

Introduction435

The Danger of Success in Math435

Descriptive Statistics436

Data Reduction436

Measures of Association437

Regression Analysis442

Other Multivariate Techniques446

Path Analysis446

Time-Series Analysis448

Factor Analysis449

Univariate Inferences452

Inferential Statistics452

Tests of Statistical Significance453

The Logic of Statistical Significance453

Chi Square459

MAIN POINTS463

ADDITIONAL READINGS464

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE464

KEY TERMS464

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES464

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION465

of Research466

The Social Context466

The Social Context of Research466

Research468

18The Ethics and Politics of Social Research468

The Ethics and Politics of Social468

Introduction469

Voluntary Participation470

Ethical Issues in Social Research470

No Harm to the Participants471

Anonymity and Confidentiality472

Deception474

Analysis and Reporting475

Institutional Review Boards476

Professional Codes of Ethics477

Observing Human Obedience479

Two Ethical Controversies479

Trouble in the Tearoom479

The Politics of Social Research481

Objectivity and Ideology481

Politics with a Little P484

Politics in Perspective485

KEY TERMS487

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES487

MAIN POINTS487

ADDITIONAL READINGS488

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE489

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION489

The Uses of Social Research490

19The Uses of Social Research490

Introduction491

Theory—Data Collection—Analysis491

Everyday Uses of Social Research Skills492

A Consumer s Guide to Social Research493

Measurement494

Research Design494

Experiments495

Sampling495

Survey Research496

Field Research496

Analyzing Existing Statistics497

Evaluation Research497

Data Analysis497

Reporting498

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE498

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION498

Conclusion498