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Chapter 1 Orientation of the Present Study,Its Rationale and Key Research Questions1

1.1 Orientation of the present study1

1.2 Rationale1

1.3 Key research questions4

1.4 Content of remaining chapters5

Chapter 2 Review of Related Research Literature8

2.1 Need for indirect application of existing cognitive and SLA theories8

2.2 Speech production11

2.2.1 Pre-Leveltan speech production models11

2.2.2 Levelt's(1989)"Speaking" model13

2.2.3 De Bot's(1992)adaptation of Levelt' s model for bilingual oral production18

2.3 Language skills development19

2.3.1 Some learning theories20

2.3.2 Anderson's Adaptive Control of Thought(ACT*)21

2.3.2.1 The ACT*framework23

2.3.2.2 The two processes and the five learning mechanisms24

2.3.2.3 The three stages26

2.4 The concept of oral fluency28

2.4.1 L1 fluency29

2.4.2 L2 fluency31

2.5 Measuring L2 fluency33

2.5.1 Factors influencing oral fluency33

2.5.2 Indices commonly employed in the measurement of oral fluency34

2.6 External learning contexts39

2.6.1 The effect of classroom instruction on L2 learning39

2.6.2 External learning variables in the FL classroom setting40

2.7 Empirical studies on L2 oral fluency development44

2.8 Summary and conclusions46

Chapter 3 A Conceptual Framework:Understanding the Development of L2 Oral Fluency in the FL Classroom Setting50

3.1 Prior considerations50

3.2 Redefining L2 oral fluency51

3.3 Fluency indices employed in the present study52

3.4 External variables in the EFL classroom setting56

3.5 Integrating external learning variables with Levelt' s model,Anderson's model,and the fluency indices58

3.5.1 Prior attempts58

3.5.2 A general framework of L2 oral fluency development for the present study60

3.5.2.1 Two types of mental representation of knowledge:declarative and procedural60

3.5.2.2 Two modes of information-processing;controlled and automatic61

3.5.3 Dissecting the framework64

3.5.3.1 Relationships among L2 input,learning mechanisms,production mechanisms and fluency indices65

3.5.3.2 Relationships among types and amount of L2 practice,learning mechanisms,production mechanisms and fluency indices67

3.5.3.3 Relationships among quality of L2 oral practice,learning mechanisms,production mechanisms and fluency indices70

3.6 Summary of the conceptual framework73

3.7 Sub-questions for the present research76

Chapter 4 Research Design and Methodology79

4.1 Research design79

4.1.1 Prior considerations79

4.1.1.1 Nature of the design79

4.1.1.2 Investigative approach80

4.1.1.3 Generalizability of the research results of the present study with a small number of subjects studied81

4.1.2 Research site81

4.1.3 The subjects82

4.1.4 Procedures of investigation84

4.2 Instrumentation87

4.2.1 Observation of the subjects' classroom English learning87

4.2.2 Students' Background Information Questionnaire87

4.2.3 Daily English Learning Questionnaire88

4.2.4 Oral English production:picture-story narration92

4.2.5 Necessary Events Questionnaire94

4.3 Data collection95

4.3.1 Time frame for data collection95

4.3.2 The subjects' classroom English learning experiences96

4.3.3 The subjects' out-of-class contact with English98

4.3.4 The information conveyed in the picture story as described by the students of the Humanities Experimental Class99

4.3.5 The subjects' oral production100

4.4 Data preparation101

4.4.1 The subjects' classroom English learning experiences101

4.4.1.1 Classroom instruction101

4.4.1.2 Classroom practice102

4.4.1.3 Classroom interactions102

4.4.2 The subjects' out-of-class contact with English103

4.4.3 Necessary events of the picture story104

4.4.4 The subjects' oral production104

4.4.4.1 Identification of pauses and calculation of the temporal indices105

4.4.4.2 Identification of errors,T-units and c-units and calculation of the linguistic indices106

4.4.4.3 Identification of repairs and calculation of the performing indices107

4.4.4.4 Inter-rater reliability of the counting results109

4.5 Data analysis110

Chapter 5 Results for the Subjects' Learning Contexts:English Learning in the Classroom and Oat-of-class Contact with English111

5.1 Results for the subjects' classroom English learning111

5.1.1 Types of knowledge about English taught during instruction113

5.1.1.1 Comprehensive English(CE)114

5.1.1.2 English Reading(ER)117

5.1.1.3 English Listening(EL)118

5.1.1.4 Oral English(OE)119

5.1.1.5 Western Culture(WC)121

5.1.2 Types of practice in English which the subjects were required to do during classes122

5.1.2.1 Comprehensive English(CE)122

5.1.2.2 English Reading(ER)126

5.1.2.3 English Listening(EL)127

5.1.2.4 Oral English(OE)127

5.1.2.5 Western Culture(WC)129

5.1.3 Classroom interactions130

5.1.3.1 Comprehensive English(CE)130

5.1.3.2 English Reading(ER)133

5.1.3.3 English Listening(EL)134

5.1.3.4 Oral English(OE)135

5.1.3.5 Western Culture(WC)137

5.1.3.6 Summary of the subjects' classroom interactions137

5.1.4 Summary of the subjects' English learning experiences in the classroom139

5.2 Results for the subjects' out-of-class contact with English142

5.2.1 Description of the Daily English Learning Questionnaire and scoring methods142

5.2.2 The amount of time the subjects spent on English practice(DELQ data)143

5.2.3 Summary of the subjects' out-of-class contact with English147

Chapter 6 Results for the Subjects' Learning Outcomes:Development in Oral English Fluency149

6.1 Quantitative results:a macro view149

6.1.1 Temporal indices150

6.1.1.1 Speaking rate(SR)151

6.1.1.2 Articulation rate(AR)151

6.1.1.3 Phonation/time ratio(PTR)152

6.1.1.4 Mean length of run(MLR)152

6.1.1.5 Average length of pause(ALP)153

6.1.2 Content index(Ratio of reported necessary events,RNE)153

6.1.3 Linguistic indices154

6.1.3.1 Ratio of error-free T-units(REFT)154

6.1.3.2 Mean length of c-units after pruning(MLCP)155

6.1.3.3 Subordinate clauses per T-unit(SCT)155

6.1.4 Performing indices155

6.1.4.1 Repairs per 100 syllables(R100)156

6.1.4.2 Ratio of reformulation and replacements(RRR)157

6.1.4.3 Ratio of pruned length to total length(RPL)157

6.1.5 Summary of the quantitative results at the macro level158

6.2 Quantitative results:a micro view160

6.2.1 Speech run and pause160

6.2.1.1 The concept of be-structure-run161

6.2.1.2 Hypotheses concerning learners' production of be-structure-runs163

6.2.2 Results165

6.2.2.1 Comparison between articulation rates for be-structure-runs and for overall samples(ARB1 vs AR1;ARB2 vs AR2)165

6.2.2.2 Comparison between average length of pause for be-structure-runs and overall average length of pause(ALPB1 vs ALP1;ALPB2 vs ALP2)167

6.2.2.3 Comparison between mean length of be-structure-runs and overall mean length of runs(MLRB1 vs MLR1;MLRB2 vs MLR2)168

6.2.2.4 Comparison between the temporal indices for be-structure-runs in the pretest and posttest respectively169

6.2.3 Summary of the quantitative results at the micro level172

6.3 Qualitative results173

6.3.1 Purposes of pauses173

6.3.2 On-line speech processing ability177

6.3.3 Past tense marking181

6.3.4 Lexical use184

6.3.5 Summary of the qualitative analysis185

Chapter 7 Interpretation of Results186

7.1 Major findings of the subjects' development in oral English fluency186

7.2 L2 oral fluency development over time in the FL classroom setting:a general picture188

7.3 To what extent the classroom learning contexts contributed to the subjects' L2 oral fluency development190

7.3.1 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of speech-planning efficiency as revealed by phonation/time ratio(PTR)and average length of pause(ALP)190

7.3.2 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of on-line processing ability as revealed by the long error-free runs with 9 syllables and above192

7.3.3 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of the smoothness of speech delivery as revealed by speaking rate(SR)and mean length of run(MLR)193

7.3.4 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of the coherence of speech as revealed by ratio of reported necessary events(RNE)195

7.3.5 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of linguistic complexity as revealed by subordinate clauses per T-unit(SCT)and mean length of c-unit after pruning(MLCP)196

7.3.6 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of linguistic accuracy as revealed by ratio or error-free T-units(REFT) and sensitivity of past tense197

7.3.7 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of lexical appropriateness as revealed by ratio of reformulation and replacements to total repairs(RRR)and by range and variety of lexical use199

7.3.8 Development of L2 oral fluency in terms of language performance as revealed by the number of repairs per 100 syllables(R100)and the ratio of pruned length to total length(RPL)200

7.3.9 Development of 1.2 oral fluency in terms of rapidity in articulation as revealed by articulation rate(AR)202

7.3.10 Learning contexts and the greater individual differences in the subjects' development of L2 oral fluency203

7.4 Summary of the effect of learning contexts on the development of L2 oral fluency204

Chapter 8 Conclusions,Implications and Recommendations207

8.1 Some conclusions207

8.2 Some implications210

8.3 Limitations of the present study and recommendations for future research211

References213

Appendix 1 Background Information Questionnaire(in Chinese)224

Appendix 2 Daily English Learning Questionnaire(in Chinese)225

Appendix 3 The Picture Story Adopted for the Elicitation of the Subjects' Oral Production and the Organization of Necessary Events in the Picture Sequence227

Appendix 4 Necessary Events Questionnaire(in Chinese,with picture sequence)230

Appendix 5 Reported Frequency of Active and Passive Questioning and Answering During Data Collection231

Appendix 6 Amount of Time the Subjects Spent on the Various Types of English Practice232

Appendix 7 Paired Sample T-test Results for the 12 Fluency Indices on the Pre-and Post-tests233

Appendix 8 The Subjects' Raw Score for the Temporal Indices at Time 1 and Time 2237

Appendix 9 T-test Results for Paired Samples for the Low Articulation Rates of the Six Subjects in the Pretest238

Appendix 10 Necessary Events Included in the Subjects' Pre-and Post-test Production239

Appendix 11 Summary of the Subjects' Score for the Linguistic Indices at Time One and Time Two240

Appendix 12 Summary of the Subjects' Score for the Performing Indices at Time One and Time Two241

Appendix 13 Transcriptions of the Full Texts of the 12 Subjects' Story Retelling at Time One and Time Two242