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Chapter 1 Effects of Low Temperatures on Living Cells and Tissues＆BY AUDREY U．SMITH1

Ⅰ．Introduction1

Ⅱ．Thermal Shock6

Ⅲ．Removal of Water11

Ⅳ．Temperature Gradients17

Ⅴ．Extra- and Intracellular Changes:Crystallization and Vitrification22

Ⅵ．The Action of Glycerol and Related Substances31

Ⅶ．Duration of Survival at Low Temperatures:Metabolic and Physical Factors42

Ⅷ．Effects of Cold on the Whole Animal45

Ⅸ．Practical Applications48

References50

Chapter 2 The Development of Freeze-Drying＆BY E．W．FLOSDORF63

Ⅰ．General Considerations63

Ⅱ．Equipment Developments66

Ⅲ．Application Developments70

References83

Chapter 3 Theoretical Aspects of Drying by Vacuum Sublimation＆BY R．I．N．GREAVES87

Ⅰ．Introduction87

Ⅱ．Freezing90

Ⅲ．Primary Drying100

Ⅳ．Secondary Drying and Packaging123

Ⅴ．Some Difficulties125

References126

Chapter 4 The Preservation of Blood Plasma and Blood Products by Freezing and Drying＆BY MAX M．STRUMIA129

Ⅰ．General Considerations129

Ⅱ．Preparation of Plasma131

Ⅲ．Freezing of Plasma134

Ⅳ．Drying of Plasma from the Frozen State137

Ⅴ．Conditions and Details of Design Related to Removal of Water137

Ⅵ．An Apparatus for Freeze-Drying Plasma142

Ⅶ．Stability of Plasma in the Dry State147

Ⅷ．Freeze-Drying of Other Blood Products147

References148

Chapter 5 The Freeze-Drying of Antibiotics＆BY J．H．SINGER151

Ⅰ．Introduction151

Ⅱ．Drying in Individual Containers152

Ⅲ．Equipment for Large-Scale Drying of Penicillin in Individual Containers155

Ⅳ．Bulk Drying169

References175

Chapter 6 The Freeze-Drying of Mother＇s Milk＆BY G．G．A．MASTENBROEK177

Ⅰ．Introduction177

Ⅱ．Collection of the Milk178

Ⅲ．The Drying Plant179

Ⅳ．Properties and Advantages of Dried Milk181

Ⅴ．Conclusions182

References183

Chapter 7 The Freeze-Drying of Foodstuffs＆BY R．GANE185

Ⅰ．Introduction185

Ⅱ．Freeze-Drying Equipment188

Ⅲ．General Conclusions190

References190

Chapter 8 The Preservation of Media for the Culture of Bacteria and Tissues＆BY DUNCAN C．HETHERINGTON193

Ⅰ．Introduction193

Ⅱ．Frozen-Dried Tissue Culture Media194

Ⅲ．Commercial Production of Media195

References199

Chapter 9 The Preservation of Viruses＆BY R．J．C．HARRIS201

Ⅰ．Introduction201

Ⅱ．Optimum Suspending Media for Viruses202

Ⅲ．Stability of Viruses to Freezing203

Ⅳ．Drying Frozen Virus Suspensions by Vacuum Sublimation204

Ⅴ．Storage of Dried Virus Preparation209

Ⅵ．General Considerations210

References211

Chapter 10 The Preservation of Bacteria＆BY R．M．FRY215

Ⅰ．Introduction215

Ⅱ．Estimation of Survival216

Ⅲ．Technique of Drying Bacteria217

Ⅳ．Factors Influencing Survival231

Ⅴ．The Death of Dried Bacteria247

Ⅵ．Further Work249

References250

Chapter 11 The Preservation of Tissues＆BY R．E．BILLINGHAM253

Ⅰ．Introduction253

Ⅱ．Studies on Preserved Nerve Grafts255

Ⅲ．A Method of Effecting Nerve Reunion with Frozen-Dried Artery Segments258

Ⅳ．The Preservation of Corneal Tissue259

Ⅴ．The Preservation of Blood Vessel Grafts262

Ⅵ．Studies on Frozen and on Frozen-Dried Tumor Tissues264

Ⅶ．Studies on the Freezing,Freeze-Drying,and Storage of Mammalian Skin270

Ⅷ．The Possible Application of Frozen-Dried Tissues in the Investigation of Problems of Morphogenesis277

Ⅸ．Conclusions278

References280

Chapter 12 The Effects of Residual Moisture in Frozen-Dried Materials,and Its Measurement＆BY L．G．BECKETT285

Ⅰ．Introduction285

Ⅱ．Effects of Residual Moisture on Non-Viable Materials286

Ⅲ．Effects of Residual Moisture on Frozen-Dried Viruses and Bacteria287

Ⅳ．Methods of Moisture Determination289

Ⅴ．Conclusion300

References300

Chapter 13．The Application of Freeze-Drying to Electron Microscopy＆BY ROBLEY C．WILLIAMS303

Ⅰ．Introduction:General Remarks303

Ⅱ．Freeze-Drying for Electron Microscopy:General Considerations307

Ⅲ．Earlier Methods of Freeze-Drying Electron Microscope Specimens308

Ⅳ．Description of a New Freeze-Drying Method309

Ⅴ．Critical Examination of Earlier Freeze-Drying Methods312

Ⅵ．Evaluation of the New Freeze-Drying Method313

Ⅶ．Difficulties in the Electron Microscopy of Frozen-Dried Materials316

Ⅷ．Examples of Electron Micrographs of Frozen-Dried Specimens318

Ⅸ．Summary326

References327

Chapter 14 Freezing and Drying of Tissues for Morphological and Histochemical Studies＆BY ISIDORE GERSH AND JOHN L．STEPHENSON329

Ⅰ．Introduction330

Ⅱ．Theory of Freezing333

Ⅲ．Tissue Observations335

Ⅳ．Description of the Drying Process338

Ⅴ．Factors Controlling the Rate of Drying341

Ⅵ．Quantitative Relations of the Factors Controlling the Rate of Drying345

Ⅶ．Efficiency of Drying Apparatus348

Ⅷ．Design of Drying Apparatus350

Ⅸ．Preparation of Dried Tissue for Sectioning360

Ⅹ．Morphology and Histochemistry of Frozen-Dried Tissues361

References380

AUTHOR INDEX385

SUBJECT INDEX395