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PREFACE Deng Fuquan and Yang Zaizhong1

CHAPTER ONE ANCIENT SOCIETY OF TIBET9

Section One Origin of the Tibetan People and the Development of Tibet by Ancient Tibetans9

1．The Rising of the Tibetan Land-Mass and the Formation of Its Natural Environment9

2．Origin of the Tibetan Ethnic Group and the Distribution of Its Population14

3．The Development of Tibet by Ancestors of Various Ethnic Groups24

Section Two Tibet Before the Establishment of the Tubo Regime31

1．The Blending of the Qiang and Tibetan Tribes at the Turn of the Qin to Han Dynasties31

2．Tibetan Tribes in the Period of the Wei,the Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties38

3．The Rise of the Pugyal Tribe in the Yarlung Valley42

4．The Rise and Fall of the Bon Religion,the Primitive Religion of Tibet50

CHAPTER TWO THE TUBO DYNASTY OF THE TIBETAN SLAVE-OWNING SYSTEM55

Section One The Establishment of the Tubo Dynasty55

1．Songtsen Gampo Unifies Tibet55

2．Tubo Makes Rasa Its Capital59

3．Economic Prosperity of the Tubo65

Section Two Relations Between the Tubo and the Tang73

1．Tang-Tubo Marriage Alliances and Princess Wencheng's Going to Tibet73

2．The Expansion of the Tubo and the War Between the Tang and Tubo79

3．Tang-Tubo Peace Pledge,Setting of the Boundary Line and Friendly Relations85

Section Three The Decline of the Tubo Dynasty and the Rise of Buddhism in Tibet92

1．The Fall of the Tubo Dynasty92

2．Separatist Regimes in Tibet During the Song and Liao Dynasties98

3．Formation of the Various Sects of Tibetan Buddhism106

CHAPTER THREE THE MERGING OF TIBET INTO CHINA IN THE YUAN DYNASTY AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDAL SERF SYSTEM114

Secfion One The Yuan Government Merges Tibet into China114

1．Tibet Gives Allegiance to the Mongolian Khanate114

2．The Merging of Tibet into China120

Section Two The Administration of Tibet by the Yuan Government127

1．The Establishment of Xuanzheng-yuan127

2．The Establishment of the System of Imperial Preceptor131

3．The Administrative Divisions of Tibet138

4．The Relationship Between the Sakya Local Regime and the Yuan Government142

Section Three Feudal Serfdom of Tibet During the Yuan Period148

1．The Establishment of the Feudal Serfdom148

2．Economic Features of Tibetan Feudal Serfdom152

3．Economic and Cultural Exchanges Between the Hans,Mongols and Tibetans During the Yuan Dynasty156

CHAPTER FOUR THE TIBETAN AREAS IN THE MING AND EARLY OING DYNASTIES163

Section One Ming Government's Administration of the Tibetan Areas163

1．Establishment of an Administrative System over the Tibetan Areas in China by the Ming Government163

2．The Tibetan Policy of the Ming Court169

3．The Succession of the Tibetan Phagmodrupa(Desi)Local Regime175

4．Apogee of the Tibetan Serf Economy and the Exchange of Tibetan Horses for Han Tea181

Section Two The Reign and Administrative Reform of the Early Qing Dynasty in Tibet185

1．The Establishment and Consolidation of the Qing's Rule over Tibet185

2．The Gurkhas'Invasions and the Tibetans'Counterattack193

3．Administrative Reforms Carried Out in Tibet by the Qing Government198

4．Strengthening of Tibet's Border Defense204

Section Three The Rise of the Gelug Sect in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties208

1．The Establishment of the Gelug Sect by Tsongkhapa208

2．The Establishment of the Dalai Lama Lineage and Confirmation by the Central Government214

3．The Establishment of the Panchen Lama Lineage and Confirmation by the Central Government225

4．The Influence Exerted by the Gelug Sect over Tibetan Society234

CHAPTER FIVE TIBETAN PEOPLE STAND AGAINST WESTERN POWERS'INVASION241

Section One The Invasion of Western Influences and the Opening of Tibet's Door241

1．Western Powers'Invasion of the Countries South of the Himalayas241

2．The First-Phase Invasion of Tibet by Western Powers245

3．The Fatuous Qing Court and the Opening of the Gate of Tibet250

4．Britain and Russia Contend over Tibet257

Section Two The Tibetans'First Struggle Against the British Invasion263

1．British-Indian Aggressive Forces Deliberately Cause Border Disputes263

2．Tibetan Soldiers and Civilians Heroically Fight Back on Mount Lengtu269

3．Two Unequal Treaties Signed273

Section Three The Tibetans'Second Struggle Against the British Invasion277

1．Tibet's Lax Border Defense and the British Scheme to Split Tibet277

2．The Battle of Gyangze and the Fall of Lhasa283

3．The Signing of the Treaty of Lhasa291

Section Four New Qing Policies Toward the End of the Qing Dynasty and the Bankruptcy of the British Plot to Split Tibet294

1．Qing Government's New Policies for the Administration of Tibet294

2．The Qing Government Makes Arrangements for Implementing the New Policies299

3．British Scheme to Split Tibet and the Dalai Lama's Exile309

4．The Qing Government's Influence in Tibet Withers Away314

CHAPTER SIX TIBET UNDER SEMI-COLONIAL STATUS IN THE PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA319

Section One The Beiyang Government's Rule in Tibet During the Early Period of the Republic of China319

1．Dr. Sun Yat-sen's"Republicanism of Five Ethnic Groups"and the Tibetan Situation During the Early Period of the Republic of China319

2．Beiyang Government Army's Expedition to Tibet and the Wars on the Sichuan Border326

3．The Simla Conference and the Position of the Beiyang Government336

Section Two The National Government's Administration over Tibet344

1．The Establishment of the Commission of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs and the Resident Tibet Office in Nanjing344

2．The National Government's Handling of the Civil War Between Xikang and Tibet353

3．The National Government's Mediation of the Contradictions Between the Dalai and Panchen Factions365

4．The National Government's Resistance Against British and American Activities to Split Tibet from China382

Section Three Anti-Imperialist and Anti-Feudal Struggle of the Tibetan People in the New-Democratic Revolution390

1．The Red Army Passes Through Tibetan Areas and Its Influence390

2．Role of Tibetan Soldiers and People in the Movement Against Japanese Invasion and for National Salvation404

3．Tibetan People's Struggle Against the Serf System410

CHAPTER SEVEN PEACEFUL LIBERATION AND BIRTH OF NEW TIBET416

Section One Peaceful Liberation of Tibet416

1．The Founding of New China Opens the Path to the Liberation of the Tibetan People416

2．Imperialists'Plot to Obstruct the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet420

3．Conclusion of the"Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet"430

4．The People's Liberation Army Enters Tibet436

Section Two Democratic Reform and the Steady Development of Tibet440

1．The Central People's Government's Principle of "Exercising Prudence and Making Steady Progress"440

2．Victory of Quelling the Armed Rebellion449

3．The Launching of the Democratic Reform455

4．Counterattack in Self-defense on the Sino-Indian Border462

Section Three The Realization of Regional National Minorities Autonomy in Tibet468

1．The Policy of Regional National Minorities Autonomy of the Communist Party of China468

2．Official Establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region470

3．The Training of Tibetan Cadres472

4．Implementation of Various Policies Concerning Regional National Minorities Autonomy475

Section Four Struggle for a Socialist New Tibet478

1．The Tibetan People Embark on the Socialist Road478

2．The Tibetan People Cure the Wounds Made by the "Cultural Revolution"483

3．The Reform and Opening in Tibet488

4．New Economical and Social Developments in Tibet and Their Prospects497

POSTSCRIPT503

APPENDICES504

1．A Sketch Map of Tibet in the Yuan Dynasty504

2．A Sketch Map of Tibet in the Period of the Republic of China505

3．A Sketch Map of the Tibet Autonomous Region506

4．The Dalai Lamas507

5．The Panchen Erdenis508