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1 Forensic Analysis of Wood DNA&SANDRA L. WILSON AND DAVID S. PIERCE1

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 Materials, Methods, and Results2

1.3 Discussion3

Acknowledgments5

References5

2 Signs of Evolution7

2.1 A New Beginning for Forensics7

2.1.1 Forensic Evolution7

2.1.2 Effects of Scientific Evolution8

2.2 Substrate to Structure9

2.3 Forces11

2.3.1 Forces Big and Small11

2.3.2 Plainly Small Forces13

2.4 A Basic Look at a Popular Substrate14

2.4.1 Polymers14

2.4.2 Primary and Secondary Bonds14

2.4.3 Manufacture and Growth of Polymers15

2.4.4 Natural Polymers and New Products17

2.4.5 Polymer Strength and Deformation18

2.4.6 Hysteresis19

2.4.7 Elastic Limit and Deformation20

2.4.8 Furthering an Understanding of Polymer Deformation21

2.4.9 Solubility22

2.5 Symmetry24

2.5.1 Symmetry by Design or Circumstance24

2.5.2 Natural Symmetry25

2.5.3 The Structure of a Digit26

2.6 Perspective29

2.6.1 Offering a Different View29

2.6.2 Approaching a Different View29

References30

3 Ivory Tower Syndrome33

3.1 The View Has Changed33

3.1.1 The Making of Towers33

3.1.2 Descending a Tower35

3.1.3 The View at Ground Level37

3.2 The Basis39

3.2.1 An Ability to Perceive40

3.2.2 The Ability to Describe Basic Properties of a Material41

3.2.3 The Changing Basis that Begins with Reason44

3.2.4 The Identification Process46

3.2.5 Developing a Physical Basis49

3.2.6 The Relevance of a Physical Basis50

References54

4 The Ground We Walk On55

4.1 Soil Composition55

4.2 The Structure of Soil57

4.3 Influences that Act on Soils59

4.4 A Curious Destination for Minerals and Dyes62

References62

5 Measurement&EUGENE LISCIO AND DAVID S. PIERCE63

5.1 The Relevance of Measurement63

5.1.1 Introduction63

5.1.2 Measurement and Counting63

5.1.3 Thresholds and Proportion64

5.1.4 Measuring Equipment64

5.1.5 Precision and Accuracy of Measurement66

5.1.6 Introducing a New Scale67

5.2 Accuracy and Language Issues71

5.2.1 Introduction71

5.2.2 Measuring Waves72

5.3 Photogrammetry74

5.3.1 Applications74

5.3.2 Image Size and Measurement77

5.3.3 Camera Distortions78

5.4 Stereoscopic Images and Scanning Synopsis79

References81

6 Fluids&PATRICK MALLAY AND DAVID S. PIERCE83

6.1 Simple Drops84

6.1.1 Apparatus84

6.1.2 Procedure84

6.1.3 Observations84

6.1.4 Spattered Drops86

6.2 Modeling Droplets87

6.2.1 Mathematical Model for the Volume of Liquid Droplets87

6.2.2 Velocity of Liquid Droplets in Air87

6.3 Sample Calculation88

6.4 Experimental Process90

6.4.1 Apparatus90

6.4.2 Procedures90

6.4.2.1 Determining the Surface Tension and Density of Test Liquids90

6.4.2.2 Determining the Drop Height92

6.4.2.3 Performing the Drop92

6.5 Friction and Fluids94

6.5.1 Apparatus95

6.5.2 Procedure for Determining Effect of Liquids on Friction95

6.5.2.1 Observations95

6.5.2.2 Discussion97

6.5.3 Rubber Friction97

6.5.4 Matters Involving Blood98

6.6 Analysis and Comparison98

6.6.1 The Value of Droplet Studies to Analysis and Comparison98

6.6.2 Capillarity100

6.6.3 Rough Surfaces103

6.7 Summary104

References105

7 Surface Pairings107

7.1 The Value of a Surface Pairing107

7.1.1 Hypothesis107

7.1.2 Definitions and Concepts108

7.1.3 Properties of Common Substrates111

7.1.4 Properties of the Common Matrix111

7.1.5 Synergistic Effects113

7.1.6 Expectations (and Distortions)113

7.1.7 Another Challenge114

7.2 Sequential Analysis115

7.2.1 Understanding the Sequence115

7.2.2 Effects of Pressure on Sequential Analysis118

7.2.3 Equipment118

7.2.4 Methodology119

7.2.5 Discussion119

7.2.6 Creep120

7.3 Transfer121

7.3.1 Direct and Anecdotal Transfers121

7.3.2 Deformed Transfer122

7.3.3 Schallamach Patterning122

7.3.4 Intaglio123

7.4 Coincidental Impressions124

7.5 Paired Surfaces at a Point of Contact126

7.6 Industrial Materials126

7.6.1 Common Attributes of Manufactured Products126

7.6.2 Interactions at Interfaces of Industrial Materials128

7.6.3 Causes of Change to Substances129

7.6.4 Dimensional Stability Issues130

7.6.5 The Importance of Friction130

References131

8 Bias133

8.1 Sources of Bias133

8.2 Creation Theory Bias135

8.3 The Awful Truth about Bias135

8.4 Errors137

8.5 Validation137

8.6 Confirmation140

References140

9 Exhibits to Evidence141

9.1 Re-Creating the Scene141

9.1.1 Considering Observations141

9.1.2 Preconceptions142

9.1.3 Condition Theories144

9.1.4 Creation Theories145

9.1.5 A Closer Look at the Role of Observations and Theories in an Analysis147

9.1.6 Comparison149

9.1.7 Cost Factor150

9.1.8 Conclusions151

9.2 The Use of Observations152

9.2.1 Transforming Observations into Opinion Evidence152

9.2.2 Merging Technology and Practice155

9.2.3 Limitations of Current Practice156

9.2.4 Expanding the Scope157

9.2.5 Reduction Techniques157

References159

10 Validation Study of Three-Dimensional Striations from Outsoles161

10.1 Beginning with Markings161

10.1.1 Striation Marks161

10.1.2 Experiment to Define Striation Repeatability161

10.1.3 Equipment161

10.1.4 Methodology162

10.1.5 Discussion162

10.1.6 Edge Characteristics of Footwear164

10.1.7 Improvement of Test Equipment165

10.1.8 Choice of Substrate168

10.2 The Hypothesis170

10.2.1 Methods of Testing the Hypothesis170

10.2.2 Designing the Test Conditions171

10.3 Empirical Studies171

10.3.1 A Study of Angles171

10.3.2 Methodology172

10.3.3 Discussion175

10.4 Dimensional Stability of Outsoles178

10.4.1 Complications Introduced by Dimensional Stability178

10.4.2 Equipment178

10.4.3 Method178

10.4.4 Tables of Averaged Values180

10.4.5 Discussion182

10.5 Experiments with Casual Exposures to Solvents183

10.5.1 Periodic Exposure to Solvents183

10.5.1.1 Equipment183

10.5.1.2 Method183

10.5.1.3 Discussion183

10.5.1.4 Conclusion183

10.5.2 Casual Exposure Measured by Weight183

10.5.2.1 Equipment184

10.5.2.2 Method184

10.5.2.3 Results184

10.5.2.4 Discussion184

10.6 Summary of Possibilities and Probabilities of Validation184

References186

11 Potential of Electrostatics187

11.1 Images of Electrons187

11.1.1 The Potential of Electrostatic Technology187

11.1.2 How It Works187

11.1.3 Why It Is Not Evidence189

11.1.4 Potential Applications: Why Bother?190

11.1.5 The Triboelectric Series191

References196

12 Toward Development of a Unified Theory197

12.1 Collective Value197

12.1.1 Formation of a Theory197

12.1.2 Diagnostics197

12.1.3 Scope199

12.1.4 Suggesting a Design Path200

12.1.5 Modeling Techniques201

12.2 Cautions204

References204

Appendix: Terminal Velocity Calculator205

Index209