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Part I The Contemporary Internet3

Chapter1 Evolution of the Internet5

Origins and Recent History of the Internet5

From ARPANET to NSFNET7

The Internet Today8

NSFNET Solicitations10

Network Access Points10

NAP Manager Solicitation11

What Is a NAP?11

Federal Internet eXchange12

Commercial Internet eXchange12

Current Physical Configurations at the NAP13

An Alternative to NAPs: Direct Interconnections14

Routing Arbiter Project14

The Very High-Speed Backbone Network Service18

Transitioning the Regional Networks from the NSFNET21

NSF Solicits NIS Managers22

Directory and Database Services23

Network Information Services23

Creation of the InterNIC23

Registration Services25

NIC Support Services25

Other Internet Registries25

ARIN26

RIPE NCC26

APNIC27

Internet Routing Registries27

The Once and Future Internet28

Next-Generation Internet Initiative28

Internet230

Abilene31

Looking Ahead32

Frequently Asked Questions34

References35

ISP Services37

Dedicated Internet Access37

Chapter2 ISP Services and Characteristics37

Frame Relay and ATM Internet Access38

Dialup Services39

Digital Subscriber Line40

Cable Modems41

Dedicated Hosting Services41

ISP Service Pricing, Service-Level Agreements, and Technical Characteristics42

ISP Service Pricing42

Other ISP Services42

Service-Level Agreements43

ISP Backbone Selection Criteria43

Demarcation Point50

Looking Ahead53

Frequently Asked Questions54

Chapter3 IP Addressing and Allocation Techniques57

History of Internet Addressing57

Basic IP Addressing57

Basic IP Subnetting60

VLSMs62

IP Address Space Depletion65

IP Address Allocation66

Classless Interdomain Routing67

Private Addressing and Network Address Translation79

IP Version682

Looking Ahead86

Frequently Asked Questions87

References89

Part II Routing Protocol Basics91

Chapter4 Interdomain Routing Basics93

Overview of Routers and Routing93

Basic Routing Example94

Routing Protocol Concepts96

Distance Vector Routing Protocols96

Link-State Routing Protocols99

Segregating the World into Autonomous Systems101

Static Routing, Default Routing, and Dynamic Routing101

Autonomous Systems102

Looking Ahead107

Frequently Asked Questions108

References109

Chapter5 Border Gateway Protocol Version 4111

How BGP Works112

BGP Message Header Format115

BGP Neighbor Negotiation116

Finite State Machine Perspective118

NOTIFICATION Message120

UPDATE Message and Routing Information122

KEEPALIVE Message122

BGP Capabilities Negotiation127

Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP128

TCP MD5 Signature Option129

Looking Ahead131

Frequently Asked Questions132

References133

Part III Effective Internet Routing Designs135

Building Peer Sessions137

Chapter 6 Chapter Tuning BGP Capabilities137

Physical Versus Logical Connections139

Obtaining an IP Address140

Authenticating the BGP Session140

BGP Continuity Inside an AS141

Synchronization Within an AS142

Sources of Routing Updates144

Injecting Information Dynamically into BGP144

Injecting Information Statically into BGP147

ORIGIN of Routes148

An Example of Static Versus Dynamic Routing: Mobile Networks150

Overlapping Protocols: Backdoors150

The Routing Process Simplified152

BGP Routes: Advertisement and Storage153

The BGP Routing Information Bases154

Routes Received from Peers155

Input Policy Engine155

Routes Used by the Router155

Sample Routing Environment156

Output Policy Engine156

Routes Advertised to Peers156

BGP Decision Process Summary158

Controlling BGP Routes159

BGP Path Attributes160

NEXT_HOP Behavior on Multiaccess Media172

NEXT_HOP Behavior Over Nonbroadcast Multiaccess Media173

Use of next-hop-self versus Advertising DMZ174

Using Private Ass175

AS_PATH and Route Aggregation Issues177

AS_PATH Manipulation178

Route Filtering and Attribute Manipulation180

Inbound and Outbound Filtering181

The Route Filtering and Manipulation Process182

Peer Groups190

BGP-4 Aggregation192

Aggregate Only, Suppressing the More-Specific Routes192

Aggregate Plus More-Specific Routes193

Aggregate with a Subset of the More-Specific Routes195

Loss of Information Inside Aggregates196

Changing the Attributes of the Aggregate196

Forming the Aggregate Based on a Subset of the More-Specific Routes196

Looking Ahead197

Frequently Asked Questions199

References201

Chapter 7 Redundancy, Symmetry, and Load Balancing203

Redundancy203

Geographical Restrictions Pressure204

Setting Default Routes205

Symmetry210

Load Balancing210

Specific Scenarios: Designing Redundancy, Symmetry, and Load Balancing212

Scenario1 : Single-Homing213

Scenario2: Multihoming to a Single Provider213

Scenario3: Multihoming to Different Providers223

Scenario4: Customers of the Same Provider with a Backup Link228

Scenario5: Customers of Different Providers with a Backup Link231

Looking Ahead236

Frequently Asked Questions237

References239

Chapter8 Controlling Routing Inside the Autonomous System241

Interaction of Non-BGP Routers with BGP Routers241

Injecting BGP into the IGP241

Following Defaults Inside an AS242

Defaults Inside the AS: Primary/Backup BGP Policy244

BGP Policies Conflicting with Internal Defaults244

Defaults Inside the AS: Other BGP Policies250

Policy Routing252

Policy Routing Based on Traffic Source252

Policy Routing Based on Traffic Source/Destination253

Policy Routing Defaults to Dynamic Routing254

Other Applications of Policy Routing255

Looking Ahead257

Frequently Asked Questions258

Route Reflectors261

Chapter 9 Controlling Large-Scale Autonomous Systems261

Internal Peers Without Route Reflectors262

Internal Peers with Route Reflectors263

Naming Conventions and Rules of Operation264

Redundancy Issues and Multiple Route Reflectors in an AS265

Route Reflection Topology Models266

Route Reflectors and Peer Groups269

Confederations271

Confederation Drawbacks273

Recommended Confederation Design274

Route Exchange and BGP Decisions with Confederations274

Confederations Versus Route Reflectors275

Controlling IGP Expansion275

Segmenting the AS with Multiple Regions Separated by IBGP277

Segmenting the AS with Multiple Regions Separated by EBGP279

Looking Ahead283

Frequently Asked Questions284

References285

IGP Instability287

Chapter 10 Designing Stable Internets287

Route Instabilities on the Internet287

Faulty Hardware288

Software Problems288

Insufficient CPU Power288

Insufficient Memory289

Network Upgrades and Routine Maintenance289

Link Congestion290

BGP Stability Features290

Human Error290

Controlling Route and Cache Invalidation291

BGP Route Refresh291

Route Dampening292

Looking Ahead296

Frequently Asked Questions297

Part IV Internet Routing Device Configuration299

Chapter 11 Configuring Basic BGP Functions and Attributes301

Building Peering Sessions301

BGP Route Maps308

Route Filtering and Attribute Manipulation308

Prefix Lists310

Identifying and Filtering Routes Based on the NLRI312

Identifying and Filtering Routes Based on the AS_PATH315

Peer Groups316

Sources of Routing Updates318

Injecting Information Dynamically into BGP318

Injecting Information Statically into BGP325

Overlapping Protocols: Backdoors326

BGP Attributes328

The NEXT_HOP Attribute331

The AS_PATH Attribute332

The LOCAL_PREF Attribute335

The MULTI_EXIT_DISC Attribute337

The COMMUNITY Attribute340

BGP-4 Aggregation342

Aggregate Only, Suppressing the More-Specific343

Aggregate Plus More-Specific Routes346

Aggregate with a Subset of the More-Specific Routes350

Loss of Information Inside Aggregates354

Changing the Aggregate s Attributes357

Forming the Aggregate Based on a Subset of Specific Routes359

Looking Ahead361

Chapter 12 Configuring Effective Internet Routing Policies365

Redundancy, Symmetry, and Load Balancing365

Dynamically Learned Defaults365

Statically Set Defaults367

Multihoming to a Single Provider370

Multihoming to Different Providers384

Customers of the Same Provider with a Backup Link388

Customers of Different Providers with a Backup Link391

Following Defaults Inside an AS395

BGP Policies Conflicting with the Internal Default398

Policy Routing411

Route Reflectors415

Confederations419

Controlling Route and Cache Invalidation424

BGP Soft Reconfiguration425

Outbound Soft Reconfiguration425

Inbound Soft Reconfiguration425

BGP Route Refresh429

BGP Outbound Request Filter Capability431

Route Dampening432

Looking Ahead435

Part V Appendixes439

Appendix A BGP Command Reference441

Interesting Organizations449

Research and Education449

Miscellaneous449

Books450

TCP/IP-Related Sources450

Routing-Related Sources450

Internet Request For Comments450

When to Use BGP ORF455

Appendix C BGP Outbound Route Filter (ORF)455

Configuration456

Enabling the BGP ORF Capability as Send-Mode456

Enabling the BGP ORF Capability as Receive-Mode456

Ensuring Backward Compatibility of the Old Knobs457

EXEC Commands457

Pushing Out A Prefix List and Receiving a Route Refresh from a Neighbor457

Closing Remarks458

Displaying Changes to the Neighbor BGP Table458

Displaying the Prefix List Received from a Neighbor458

Appendix D Multiprotocol BGP (MBGP)461

The Motivation Behind the New Command-Line Interface461

Organizing Command Groups in the New Configuration462

activate464

Old Style464

AF Style464

Peer Groups465

AF Style465

network465

Old Style465

Old Style466

AF Style466

Route Maps466

Old Style466

AF Style467

Old Style468

AF Style468

Redistribution468

Route Reflector469

Old Style469

AF Style469

Aggregation469

Old Style470

AF Style470

List of BGP Commands470

Upgrading to the AF Style472

References473

Index475