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Introduction1

1 Origins and Developments of Arrangements to Allocate Responsibility for the Protection of Refugees9

1.1 Fundamental Concepts10

1.1.1 The international legal framework of refugee protection: historical background10

1.1.2 The establishment of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees12

1.1.3 The 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees13

1.1.4 Refugees and asylum15

1.2 The Refugee Situation at the End of the 1970s17

1.2.1 'Refugees in orbit'20

1.2.2 The 1977 United Nations' conference on territorial asylum21

1.2.3 Conclusions of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme23

1.2.4 The Council of Europe26

1.3 The European Union30

1.3.1 The European Commission's proposals30

1.3.2 The 1985 Schengen Agreement and the 1990 Implementing Convention33

1.3.3 The elaboration of the Dublin Convention35

1.3.4 The Amsterdam Treaty and the 'Communitarisation' of visas, asylum, immigration, and other policies related to the movement of persons36

1.3.4.1 An area of freedom, security and justice'36

1.3.4.2 Provisions on asylum, refugees, and displaced persons (Article 63.1 and 2 ECT): harmonizing asylum laws in the European Union38

1.3.4.3 The British/Irish and Danish 'opt-outs'41

1.3.4.4 The next stage: the Lisbon Treaty43

1.4 Conclusion44

2 Safe Third Country Practices, Readmission, and Extraterritorial Processing45

2.1 Safe Third Country Practices46

2.1.1 Definition46

2.1.2 Origins and development47

2.1.2.1 Effective protection52

2.1.2.2 Contact between the asylum seeker and the third country and consent of the third state to the removal56

2.1.2.3 Procedural issues concerning the application of the safe third country concept59

2.1.3 Conclusion66

2.2 Readmission Agreements67

2.2.1 Definition61

2.2.2 Evolution of readmission agreements67

2.2.3 Characteristics69

2.2.4 Readmission as a component of the European Unions external dimension of asylum and immigration policies71

2.3 Extraterritorial Processing78

2.3.1 Origins78

2.3.2 European proposals for extraterritorial processing78

2.3.3 Analysis81

2.4 The Way Forward83

2.5 Conclusion87

3 Allocation of Responsibility for Examining an Application for Asylum under the Dublin Regime89

3.1 Elaboration of the Dublin Regulation90

3.2 Principles91

3.2.1 Only one State is responsible for examining an application for asylum92

3.2.2 The State responsible is under the obligation to guarantee effective access to the asylum procedure92

3.2.3 Scope94

3.3 Criteria Determining the State Responsible95

3.3.1 Family unity96

3.3.2 Visa and residence permit101

3.3.3 Illegal crossing of the territory of a Member State101

3.3.4 Control of the entry of the alien into the territory of the Member States102

3.3.5 The humanitarian and 'sovereignty' clauses102

3.4 Procedure111

3.4.1 Transfer of the asylum seeker to the responsible State111

3.4.2 Rules of evidence115

3.4.3 Identification of the asylum seeker: the Eurodac Regulation117

3.5 Assessment121

3.6 Conclusion125

4 The Impact of Safe Third Country Practices on Inter-State Relations127

4.1 Protection Elsewhere or Mere Transit: The Relevance and Scope of Article 31 CSR127

4.2 International Cooperation to Protect Refugees: Solidarity, Burden-Sharing, and Good-Neighbourliness138

4.2.1 The principle of solidarity and burden-sharing139

4.2.1.1 International instruments140

4.2.1.2 Burden-sharing and non-refoulement144

4.2.1.3 International practice146

4.2.1.3.1 Fiscal burden-sharing147

4.2.1.3.2 Physical burden-sharing150

4.2.1.3.3 Comprehensive approaches156

4.2.1.4 The legal relevance of the principle of solidarity and burden-sharing161

4.2.1.5 Safe third country practices and burden-sharing164

4.2.2 The principle of good-neighbourliness167

4.3 Conclusion170

5 States' Obligations Towards Refugees173

5.1 The Obligation of Non-Refoulement173

5.1.1 The obligation of non-refoulement under international refugee law174

5.1.1.1 Nature and scope of Article 33 CSR: the prohibition of expulsion or return ('refoulement')174

5.1.1.2 States' obligation to implement the Refugee Convention181

5.1.2 Non-refoulement under international human rights law187

5.1.2.1 Non-refoulement under the European Convention on Human Rights189

5.1.2.1.1 Applicable standard191

5.1.2.1.2 Jurisprudence of relevance to safe third country practices194

5.1.2.2 Article 3 of the Convention Against Torture199

5.1.3 Non-refoulement as a customary obligation204

5.2 Other Human Rights Obligations209

5.2.1 The right to seek and enjoy asylum from persecution209

5.2.2 The right to leave one's country212

5.2.3 Other relevant international refugee law and human rights obligations214

5.3 Removal to a Safe Third Country and States' Obligations: The Content and Scope of Effective Protection217

5.4 Conclusion221

6 Supervision at the Level of the European Union223

6.1 The Court of Justice under the EC Treaty224

6.1.1 Remedies before the European Court of Justice224

6.1.1.1 Failure to comply with the Treaty: Articles 226 and 227 ECT225

6.1.1.2 Review of the legality of Community acts227

6.1.1.2.1 Reviewable acts228

6.1.1.2.2 Grounds for annulment228

6.1.1.2.3 Applicants228

6.1.1.3 Failure to act: Article 232 ECT232

6.1.1.4 Preliminary ruling: Article 68.1 ECT232

6.1.1.5 Competence to rule on the interpretation of Title IV ECT236

6.1.2 Consequences of the British/Irish and Danish 'Opt-out'237

6.1.3 Intervention of UNHCR in ECJ proceedings237

6.1.4 Assessment of existing remedies238

6.2 The European Court of Justice and Fundamental Rights240

6.2.1 Fundamental rights as general principles of European Community law240

6.2.2 The European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights242

6.2.3 Fundamental rights in European Treaties245

6.2.4 The latest twist: the Charter of Fundamental Rights247

6.3 Conclusion249

Chapter 7 International Supervision251

7.1 Supervisory Mechanisms Relevant to the Protection of Refugees and Asylum Seekers251

7.1.1 Supervision by or on behalf of the organization252

7.1.1.1 The Executive Committee of the High Commissioners Programme252

7.1.1.2 UNHCR's function of international protection255

7.1.1.2.1 The crisis of protection: UNHCR in the 1990s257

7.1.1.2.2 UNHCR's position on safe third country practices258

7.1.1.3 Article 35 CSR261

7.1.1.4 Advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice264

7.1.1.5 Human rights charter-based bodies264

7.1.2 Supervision by States: Article 38 CSR265

7.1.3 Supervision by individuals266

7.2 Future Prospects267

7.2.1 Supervision by or on behalf of UNHCR267

7.2.1.1 UNHCR's international protection mandate267

7.2.1.1.1 The Global Consultations and the Agenda for Protection267

7.2.1.1.2 Regulating secondary movements: 'Convention Plus' and other initiatives271

7.2.1.1.3 Conclusion275

7.2.1.2 The Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme276

7.2.1.3 Establishment of an independent body to examine State reports278

7.2.2 Supervision by individuals282

7.3 Conclusion284

Conclusion285

Select Bibliography289

Index335