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Part one GENERAL ASPECTS4

chapter one INTRODUCTION4

Prologue：The Issues4

Plants and Disease4

The Concept of Disease in Plants5

Types of Plant Diseases7

History of Plant Pathology and Early Significant Plant Diseases8

Introduction8

Plant Diseases as the Wrath of Gods—Theophrastus9

Mistletoe Recognized as the First Plant Pathogen14

Plant Diseases as the Result of Spontaneous Generation16

Biology and Plant Pathology in Early Renaissance16

Potato Blight—Deadly Mix of Ignorance and Politics19

The Expanding Role o f Fungi as Causes o f Plant Disease21

The Discovery o f the Other Causes o f Infectious Diseases23

Nematodes—Protozoan Myxomycetes—Bacteria—Viruses.Protozoa—Mollicutes—Viroids—Serious Plant Diseases of Unknown Etiology23

Koch’s Postulates26

Viruses，Viroids，and Prions27

Losses Caused by Plant Diseases29

Plant diseases reduce the quantity and quality of plant produce.29

White，Downey，and Dry Vineyards—Bring on the Bordeaux！30

Plant diseases may limit the kinds o f plants and industries in an area.32

Chestnuts，Elms，and Coconut Palm Trees—Where have they gone？32

Plant diseases may make plants poisonous to humans and animals37

Ergot，Ergotism，and LSD：a Bad Combination37

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses39

Plant diseases may cause financial losses.41

The Insect—Pathogen Connection：Multifaceted and Important42

Plant Pathology in the 20th Century45

Early Developments45

The Descriptive Phase45

The Experimental Phase46

The Etiological Phase46

The Search for Control of Plant Diseases46

The Main Areas o f Progress47

Chemical Control of Plant Diseases47

Appearance of Pathogen Races Resistant to Bactericides and Fungicides48

Public Concern about Chemical Pesticides48

Alternative Controls for Plant Diseases49

Interest in the Mechanisms by Which Pathogens Cause Disease50

The Concept of Genetic Inheritance of Resistance and Pathogenicity52

Epidemiology of Plant Disease Comes of Age53

Plant Pathology Today and Future Directions54

Molecular Plant Pathology54

Aspects of Applied Plant Pathology56

Plant Biotechnology—The Promise and the Objections56

Food Safety58

Bioterrorism，Agroterrorism，Biological Warfare，etc.Who，What，Why59

Worldwide Development of Plant Pathology as a Profession60

International Centers for Agricultural Research60

Trends in Teaching and Training61

Plant Disease Clinics62

The Practice and Practitioners of Plant Pathology63

Certification of Professional Plant Pathologists63

Plant Pathology as a Part of Plant Medicine； the Doctor of Plant Medicine Program64

Plant Pathologists’ Contributin to Crops and Society65

Some Historical and Present Examples o f Losses Caused by Plant Diseases65

Plant Diseases and World Crop Production65

Crop Losses to Diseases，Insects and Weeds66

Pesticides and Plant Diseases69

Basic Procedures in the Diagnosis of Plant Diseases71

Pathogen or Environment71

Infectious Diseases72

Parasitic Higher Plants—Nematodes—Fungi and Bacteria：Fungi—Bacteria and Mollicutes72

Viruses and Viroids—More than One Pathogen73

Noninfectious Diseases73

Identification o f a Preciously Unknown Disease：Koch’s Postulates74

chapter two PARASITISM AND DISEASE DEVELOPMENT77

Parasitism and Pathogenicity77

Host Range of Pathogens78

Development of Disease in Plants79

Stages in the Development of Disease：The Disease Cycle80

Inoculation80

Inoculation，Types of Inoculum，Sources of Inoculum，Landing or Arrival of Inoculum80

Prepenetration Phenomena82

Attachment of Pathogen to Host，Spore Germination and Perception of the Host Surface，Appressorium Formation and Maturation，Recognition between Host and Pathogen，Germination of Spores and Seeds，Hatching of Nematode Eggs82

Penetration87

Direct Penetration through Intact Plant Surfaces，Penetration through Wounds，Penetration through Natural Openings87

Infection89

Infection，Invasion，Growth and Reproduction of the Pathogen （Colonization）89

Dissemination o f the Pathogen96

Dissemination by Air，Dissemination by Water，Dissemination by Insects，Mites，Nematodes，and Other Vectors，Dissemination by Pollen，Seed，Transplants，Budwood，and Nursery Stock，Dissemination by Humans96

Overwintering and/or Oversummering o f Pathogens100

Relationships between Disease Cycles and Epidemics102

chapter three EFFECTS OF PATHOGENS ON PLANT PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS106

Effects of Pathogens on Photosynthesis106

Effect of Pathogens on Translocation of Water and Nutrients in the Host Plant106

Interference with Upward Translocation of Water and Inorganic Nutrients106

Effect on Absorption of Water by Roots108

Effect on Translocation o f Water through the Xylem108

Effect on Transpiration108

Interference with the Translocation of Organic Nutrients through the Phloem113

Effect of Pathogens on Host Plant Respiration115

Respiration of Diseased Plants117

Effect of Pathogens on Permeability of Cell Membranes118

Effects of Pathogens on Transcription and Translation118

Effect on Transcription119

Effect on Translation119

Effect of Pathogens on Plant Growth119

Effect of Pathogens on Plant Reproduction121

chapter four GENETICS OF PLANT DISEASE125

Introduction125

Genes and Disease—Variability in Organisms—Mechanisms o f Variability126

General Mechanisms：Mutation—Recombination—Gene and Genotype Flow among Plant Pathogens—Population Genetics，Genetic Drift，and Selection—Life Cycles—Reproduction—Mating Systems—Out-crossing—Pathogen Fitness129

Specialized Mechanisms of Variability in Pathogens：Sexual-like Processes in Fungi Heterokaryosis—Parasexualism—Vegetative Incompatibility—Heteroploidy131

Sexual-like Processes in Bacteria and Horizontal Gene Transfer132

Genetic Recombination in Viruses133

Loss of Pathogen Virulence in Culture133

Stages o f Variation in Pathogens134

Types o f Plant Resistance to Pathogens134

True Resistance：Partial，Quantitative，Polygenic，or Horizontal Resistance—R-Gene Resistance，Monogenic，or Vertical Resistance136

Disease Escape—Tolerance to Disease137

Genetics of Virulence in Pathogens and of Resistance in Host Plants139

The Nature o f Resistance to Disease—Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Pathogens142

Genes Involved in Pathogenesis and Virulence by Pathogens142

Pathogenicity Genes o f Fungi controlling：Production o f Infection Structures—Degradation of Cuticle and Cell Wall—Secondary Metabolites— Fungal Toxins—Pathogenicity Signaling Systems144

Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria controlling：Adhesion to Plant Surfaces—Secretion Systems—Enzymes that Degrade Cell Walls—Bacterial Toxins as Pathogenicity Factors— Extracellular Polysaccharides as Pathogenicity Factors—Bacterial Regulatory Systems and Networks—Sensing Plant Signaling Components—Other Bacterial Pathogenicity Factors146

Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Viruses：—Functions Associated with the Coat Protein—Viral Pathogenicity Genes149

Nematode Pathogenicity Genes150

Genetics o f Resistance through the Hypersensitive Response151

Pathogen-Derived Elicitors of Defense Responses in Plants151

Avirulence （avr） Genes：One of the Elicitors of Plant Defense Responses Characteristics of avr Gene-Coded Proteins：—Their Structure and Function Role of avr Genes in Pathogenicity and Virulence154

hrp Genes and the Type Ⅲ Secretion System155

Resistance （R） Genes of Plants：Examples of R Genes—How Do R Genes Confer Resistance？-Evolution o f R Genes—Other Plant Genes for Resistance to Disease155

Signal Transduction between Pathogenicity Genes and Resistance Genes：—Signaling and Regulation o f Programmed Cell Death—Genes and Signaling in Systemic Acquired Resistance160

Examples o f Molecular Genetics o f Selected Plant Diseases：—The Powdery Mildew Disease—Magnaporthe grisea，the Cause o f Rice Blast—Fusarium，the Soilborne Plant Pathogen—Ustilago maydis and Corn Smut161

Breeding of Resistant Varieties165

Natural Variability in Plants—Breeding and Variability in Plants—Breeding for Disease Resistance Sources of Genes for Resistance—Techniques Used in Classical Breeding for Resistance—Seed，Pedigree，and Recurrent Selection—Tissue Culture and Genetic Engineering Techniques165

Genetic Transformation o f Plant Cells for Disease Resistance169

Advantages and Problems in Breeding for Vertical or Horizontal Resistance169

Vulnerability of Genetically Uniform Crops to Plant Disease Epidemics170

chapter five HOW PATHOGENS ATTACK PLANTS177

Mechanical Forces Exerted By Pathogens on Host Tissues177

Chemical Weapons of Pathogens179

Enzymes in Plant Disease180

Enzymatic Degradation of Cell Wall Substances180

Cuticular Wax—Cutin—Pectic Substances—Cellulose— Cross-Linking Glycans （Hemicelluloses）—Suberin— Lignin—Cell Wall Flavonoids—Cell Wall Structural Proteins180

Enzymatic Degradation of Substances Contained in Plant Cells189

Proteins—Starch—Lipids189

Microbial Toxins in Plant Disease190

Toxins That Affect a Wide Range of Host Plants190

Tabtoxin—Phaseolotoxin—Tentoxin—Cercosporin— Other Non-Host-Specific Toxins191

Host-Specific or Host-Selective Toxins193

Victorin，HV Toxin—T-Toxin [Cochliobolus （Helminthosporium） heterostrophus RaceT-Toxin]—C-Toxin—Alternaria alternata Toxins—Other Host-Specific Toxins194

Growth Regulators in Plant Disease196

Detoxification o f Low-Molecular Weight Antimicrobial Molecules201

Promotion o f Bacterial Virulence By avr Genes202

Role o f Type Ⅲ Secretion in Bacterial Pathogenesis202

Pathogenicity and Virulence Factors in Viruses and Viroids202

chapter six HOW PLANTS DEFEND THEMSELVES AGAINST PATHOGENS208

Whatever the Plant Defense or Resistance，It Is Controlled by Its Genes208

Non-host Resistance—Partial，Polygenic，Quantitative，or Horizontal Resistance—Monogenic，R Gene，or Vertical Resistance208

Preexisting Structural and Chemical Defenses210

Preexisting Defense Structures210

Preexisting Chemical Defenses211

Inhibitors Released by the Plant in Its Environment—Inhibitors Present in Plant Cells before Infection211

Defense through Lack of Essential Factors212

Lack o f Recognition between Host and Pathogen：Lack of Host Receptors and Sensitive Sites for Toxins—Lack o f Essential Substances for the Pathogen212

Induced Structural and Biochemical Defenses213

Recognition of the Pathogen by the Host Plant213

Transmission of the Alarm Signal to Host Defense Providers：Signal Transduction214

Induced Structural Defenses：Cytoplasmic Defense Reaction—Cell Wall Defense Structures214

Histological Defense Structures：Formation of Cork Layers—Abscission Layers—Tyloses—Deposition of Gums215

Necrotic Structural Defense Reaction：Defense through the Hypersensitive Response217

Induced Biochemical Defenses in：Non-Host Resistance—In Partial，Quantitative （Polygenic，General，or Horizontal）Resistance：Function of Gene Products in Quantitative Resistance—The Mechanisms of Quantitative Resistance—Effect of Temperature on Quantitative Resistance217

Induced Biochemical Defenses in the Hypersensitive Response （R Gene）Resistance221

The Hypersensitive Response：Genes Induced During Early Infection—Functional Analysis of Plant Defense Genes—Classes of R Gene Proteins—Recognition of Avr Proteins of Pathogens by the Host Plant—How Do R and Avr Gene Products Activate Plant Responses？—Some Examples of Plant Defense through R Genes and Their Matching Avr Genes：—The Rice Pi-ta Gene.The Tomato Cf Genes.The Tomato Bs2 Gene.The Arabidopsis RPM1 Gene—The Co-function of Two or More Genes.221

Defense Involving Bacterial Type Ⅲ Effector Proteins229

Production of Active Oxygen Species，Lipoxygenases，and Disruption of Cell Membranes—Reinforcement of Host Cell Walls with Strengthening Molecules231

Production of Antimicrobial Substances in Attacked Host Cells—Pathogenesis-Related （PR）Proteins232

Defense through Production of Secondary Metabolites—Phenolics：—Simple Phenolic Compounds—Toxic Phenolics from Nontoxic Phenolic Glycosides—Role of Phenol-Oxidizing Enzymes in Disease Resistance—Phytoalexins233

Detoxification of Pathogen Toxins by Plants—Immunization of Plants against Pathogens：Defense through Plantibodies236

Resistance through prior Exposure to Mutants of Reduced Pathogenicity237

Systemic Acquired Resistance：—Induction by Artificial Inoculation with Microbes or by Treatment with Chemicals237

Defense through Genetically Engineering Disease-Resistant Plants242

With Plant-Derived Genes—With Pathogen-Derived Genes242

Defense through RNA Silencing by Pathogen-Derived Genes242

chapter seven ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFECTIOUS PLANT DISEASE251

Introduction251

Effect of Temperature253

Effect of Moisture257

Effect of Wind257

Effect of Light257

Effect of Soil pH and Soil Structure257

Effect of Host-Plant Nutrition257

Effect of Herbicides262

Effect of Air Pollutants262

chapter eight PLANT DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY266

The Elements of an Epidemic266

Host Factors That Affect the Development of Epidemics267

Levels of Genetic Resistance or Susceptibility of the Host—Degree of Genetic Uniformity of Host Plants—Type of Crop—Age of Host Plants267

Pathogen Factors That Affect Development of Epidemics269

Levels of Virulence—Quantity of Inoculum Near Hosts—Type of Reproduction of the Pathogen— Ecology of the Pathogen—Mode of Spread of the Pathogen269

Environmental Factors That Affect Development of Epidemics271

Moisture—Temperature271

Effect of Human Cultural Practices and Control Measures272

Site Selection and Preparation—Selection of Propagative Material—Cultural Practices—Disease Control Measures—Introduction of New Pathogens272

Measurement of Plant Disease and of Yield Loss273

Patterns of Epidemics—Comparison of Epidemics—Development of Epidemics—Modeling of Plant Disease Epidemics—Computer Simulation of Epidemics274

Forecasting Plant Disease Epidemics281

Evaluation of Epidemic Thresholds—Evaluation of Economic Damage Threshold—Assessment of Initial Inoculum and of Disease—Monitoring Weather Factors That Affect Disease Development281

New Tools in Epidemiology283

Molecular Tools.GIS.Remote Sensing.Image Analysis.Information Technology283

Examples of Plant Disease Forecast Systems285

Forecasts Based on Amount of Initial Inoculum—On Weather Conditions Favoring Development of Secondary Inoculum—On Amounts of Initial and Secondary Inoculum285

Disease-Warning Systems—Development and Use of Expert Systems in Plant Pathology—Decision Support Systems289

chapter nine CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES295

Control Methods that Exclude the Pathogen from the Host295

Quarantines and Inspections—Crop Certification—Evasion or Avoidance of Pathogen—Use of Pathogen-Free Propagating Material—Pathogen-Free Seed—Pathogen-Free Vegetative Propagating Materials—Exclusion of Pathogens from Plant Surfaces by Epidermal Coatings295

Control Methods that Eradicate or Reduce Pathogen Inoculum298

Cultural Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum：—Host Eradication—Crop Rotation—Sanitation—Creating Conditions Unfavorable to the Pathogen—Polyethylene Traps and Mulches300

Biological Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum：—Suppressive Soils303

Reducing Amount of Pathogen Inoculum through Antagonistic Microorganisms Soilborne Pathogens—Aerial Pathogens—Mechanisms of Action—Control through Trap Plants—Control through Antagonistic Plants305

Physical Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum—Control by Heat Treatment—Soil Sterilization by Heat—Soil Solarization Hot-Water Treatment of Propagative Organs—Hot-Air Treatment of Storage Organs Control by Eliminating Certain Light Wavelengths—Drying Stored Grains and Fruit—Disease Control by Radiation—Trench Barriers against Root-transmitted Tree Diseases310

Chemical Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum—Soil Treatment with Chemicals—Fumigation—Disin festation of Warehouses—Control of Insect Vectors312

Cross Protection—Induced Resistance：SystemicAcquired Resistance—Plant Defense Activators—Improving the Growing Conditions of Plants—Use of Resistant Varieties314

Control through Use of Transgenic Plants Transformed for Disease Resistance Transgenic Plants that Tolerate Abiotic Stresses—Transgenic Plants Transformed with：Specific Plant Genes for Resistance—with Genes Coding for Anti-pathogen Compounds—with Nucleic Acids that Lead to Resistance and to Pathogen Gene Silencing—with Combinations of Resistance Genes—Producing Antibodies against the Pathogen—Transgenic Biocontrol Microorganisms319

Direct Protection of Plants from Pathogens322

By Biological Controls：—Fungal Antagonists：Heterobasidion （Fomes） annosum by Phleviopsis （Peniophora） gigantea—Chestnut Blight with Hypovirulent Strains of the Pathogen—Soilborne Diseases—Diseases of Aerial Plant Parts with Fungi&— Postharvest Diseases Bacterial Antagonists：Soilborne Diseases—Diseases of Aerial Plant Parts with Bacteria—Postharvest Diseases—with Bacteria of Bacteria-Mediated Frost Injury328

Viral Parasites of Plant Pathogens328

Biological Control of Weeds328

Direct Protection by Chemicals329

Methods of Application of Chemicals for Plant Disease Control—Foliage Sprays and Dusts—Seed Treatment—Soil Treatment—Treatment of Tree Wounds—Control of Postharvest Diseases332

Types of Chemicals Used for Plant Disease Control338

Inorganic—Inorganic Sulfur Compounds—Carbonate Compounds—Phosphate and Phosphonate Compounds— Film-Forming Compounds338

Organic Chemicals：Contact Protective Fungicides—Organic Sulfur Compounds：Ditihiocarbamates339

Systemic Fungicides：—Heterocyclic Compounds—Acylalanines—Benzimidazoles—Oxanthiins—Organophosphate Fungicides—Pyrimidines—Trizoles—Strobilurins or QoI Fungicides—Miscellaneous Systemics340

Miscellaneous Organic Fungicides—Antibiotics—Petroleum Oils and Plant Oils—Electrolyed Oxidizing Water—Growth Regulators—Nematicides：—Hologenated Hydrocarbons—Organophosphate Nematicides—Isothiocoyanates—Carbamates—Miscellaneous Nematicides343

Mechanisms of Action of Chemicals Used to Control Plant Diseases—Resistance of Pathogens to Chemicals—Restrictions on Chemical Control of Plant Diseases345

Integrated Control of Plant Diseases：—In a Perennial Crop—In an Annual Crop348

Part two SPECIFIC PLANT DISEASES358

chapter ten ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT CAUSE PLANT DISEASES358

Introduction：General Characteristics—Diagnosis—Control358

Temperature Effects：High-Temperature Effects— Low-Temperature Effects—Low- Temperature Effects on Indoor Plants358

Moisture Effects：Low Soil Moisture Effects—Low Relative Humidity—High Soil Moisture Effects365

Inadequate Oxygen367

Light368

Air Pollution368

Nutritional Deficiencies in Plants372

Soil Minerals Toxic to Plants372

Herbicide Injury378

Other Improper Agricultural Practices381

The Often Confused Etiology of Stress Diseases383

chapter eleven PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI383

Introduction383

Some Interesting Facts about Fungi （Box）387

Characteristics of plant pathogenic fungi388

Morphology—Reproduction—Ecology—Dissemination388

Classification of Plant Pathogenic Fungi390

Fungallike Organisms—The True Fungi391

Identification：Symptoms Caused by Fungi on Plants397

Isolation of fungi （and Bacteria）398

Preparing for Isolation—Isolating the Pathogen398

Life Cycles of Fungi402

Control of Fungal Diseases of Plants403

Diseases Caused by Fungallike Organisms404

Diseases Caused by Myxomycota （Myxomycetes）404

Diseases Caused by Plasmodiophoromycetes405

Clubroot of Crucifers407

Diseases Caused by Oomycetes409

Pythium Seed Rot，Damping-off，Root Rot，and Soft Rot410

Phytophthora Diseases414

Phytophthora Root and Stem Rots—Phytophthoras Declare War on Cultivated Plants and on Native Tree Species （Box）414

Late Blight of Potatoes421

The Downy Mildews427

Introduction—Downy Mildew of Grape428

Diseases Caused by True Fungi433

Diseases Caused by Chytridiomycetes433

Diseases Caused by Zygomycetes434

Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Mitosporic Fungi439

Sooty molds—Taphrina leaf Curl Diseases—Powdery Mildews440

Foliar Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes （Mitosporic Fungi）452

Alternaria Diseases—Cladosporium Diseases—Needle Casts and Blights of Conifers452

Mycosphaerella Diseases：Banana Leaf Spot or Sigatoka Disease458

Septoria Diseases—Cercospora Diseases—Rice Blast Disease460

Cochliobolus，Pyrenophora and Setosphaeria Diseases of Cereals and Grasses466

Diseases of Corn：—Southern Corn Leaf Blight—Northern Corn Leaf Blight—Northern Corn Leaf Spot466

Diseases of Rice—Brown Spot Disease of Rice468

Cochliobolus Diseases of Wheat，Barley，and Other Grasses469

Crown Rot and Common Root Rot—Spot Blotch of Barley and Wheat469

Pyrenophora Diseases of Wheat，Barley and Oats469

Net Blotch of Barley—Barley Stripe—Tan Spot of Wheat469

Stem and Twig Cankers Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes（Mitosporic Fungi）473

Black Knot of Plum and Cherry—Chestnut Blight— Nectria Canker—Leucostoma Canker476

Cankers of Forest Trees：—Hypoxylon Canker—Pitch Canker—Butternut Canker—Phomopsis Blight—Seiridium Canker481

Anthracnose Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deureromycetes （Mitosporic Fungi）483

Black Spot of Rose485

Elsinoe Anthracnose and Scab Diseases：—Grape Anthracnose or Bird’s-eye Rot—Raspberry Anthracnose—Citrus Scab Diseases—Avocado Scab486

Colletotrichum Diseases：Colletotrichum Anthracnose Diseases of Annual Plants487

Anthracnose of Beans—Anthracnose of Cucurbits—Anthracnose or Ripe Rot of Tomato—Onion Anthracnose or Smudge—Strawberry Anthracnose—Anthracnose of Cereals and Grasses490

Colletotrichum Anthracnoses：A Menace To Tropical Crops （Box） Colletotrichum491

Bitter Rot of Apple—Ripe Rot of Grape494

Gnomonia Anthracnose and Leaf Spot Diseases498

Dogwood Anthracnose501

Fruit and General Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes（Mitosporic Fungi）501

Ergot of Cereals and Grasses—Apple Scab—Brown Rot of Stone Fruits—Monoliophthora Pod Rot of Cacao—Botrytis Diseases—Black Rot of Grape—Cucurbit Gummy Stem Blight and Black Rot—Diaporthe，Phomopsis，and Phoma Diseases—Stem Canker of Soybeans—Melanose Disease of Citrus—Phomopsis Diseases—Black Rot of Apple501

Vascular Wilts Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes （Mitosporic Fungi）522

Fusarium Wilts：O f Tomato—Fusarium or Panama Wilt of Banana523

Verticillium Wilts526

Ophiostoma Wilt of Elm Trees：Dutch Elm Disease528

Ceratocystis Wilts—Oak wilt—Ceratocystis Wilt of Eucalyptus532

Root and Stem Rots Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes （Mitosporic Fungi）534

Gibberella Diseases—Gibberella Stalk and Ear Rot，and Seedling Blight of Corn535

Fusarium （Gibberella） Head Blight （FHB） or Scab of Small Grains535

Fusarium Root and Stem Rots of Non-Grain Crops538

Take-All of Wheat—Thielavopsis Black Root Rot—Monosporascus Root Rot and Vine Decline of Melons540

Sclerotinia Diseases：Sclerotinia Diseases of Vegetables and Flowers—Phymatotrichum Root Rot546

Postharvest Diseases of Plant Products Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes553

Postharvest Decays of Fruits and Vegetables556

Aspergillus，Penicillium，Rhizopus，and Mucor—Alternaria—Botrytis—Fusarium—Geotrichum—Penicillium—Sclerotinia556

Control of Postharvest Decays of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables557

Postharvest Decays of Grain and Legume Seeds558

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses559

Aspergillus Toxins—Aflatoxins559

Fusarium Toxins—Other Aspergillus Toxins and Penicillium Toxins559

Control of Postharvest Grain Decays560

Diseases Caused by Basidiomycetes562

The Rusts—The Smuts—Root and Stem Rots—Wood Rots and Decays—Witches’Broom562

The Rusts562

Cereal Rusts—Stem Rust of Wheat and Other Cereals565

Rusts of Legumes—Bean Rust—Soybean Rust—A Major Threat to a Major Crop （Box）571

Cedar-Apple Rust—Coffee Rust574

Rusts of Forest Trees：—White Pine Blister Rust—Fusi form Rust577

The Smuts582

Corn Smut—Loose Smut of Cereals—Covered Smut，or Bunt，of Wheat588

Karnal Bunt of Small Grains-Legitimate Concerns and Political Predicaments （Box）592

Root and Stem Rots Caused by Basidiomycetes593

Root and Stem Rot Diseases Caused by the “Sterile Fungi” Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium593

Rhizoctonia Diseases—Sclerotium Diseases594

Root Rots of Trees602

Armillaria Root Rot of Fruit and Forest Trees602

Wood Rots and Decays Caused by Basidiomycetes604

Witches’ Broom of Cacao611

chapter twelve PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY PROKARYOTES：BACTERIA AND MOLLICUTES616

Introduction616

Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria618

Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria618

Morphology—Reproduction—Ecology and Spread—Identification of Bacteria—Symptoms Caused by Bacteria—Control of Bacterial Diseases of Plants618

Bacterial Spots and Blights627

Introduction—Wildfire of Tobacco—Bacterial Blights of Bean—Angular Leaf Spot of Cucumber—Angular Leaf Spot or Bacterial Blight of Cotton—Bacterial Leaf Spots and Blights of Cereals and Grasses—Bacterial Spot of Tomato and Pepper—Bacterial Speck of Tomato—Bacterial Fruit Blotch o f Watermelon— Cassava Bacterial Blight—Bacterial Spot o f Stone Fruits627

Bacterial Vascular Wilts638

Bacterial Wilt o f Cucurbits—Fire Blight o f Pear and Apple—Southern Bacterial Wilt o f Solanaceous Plants—Bacterial Wilt or Moko Disease o f Banana—Ring Rot o f Potato639

Bacterial Canker and Wilt o f Tomato—Bacterial Wilt （Black Rot） o f Cruci fers—Stewart’s Wilt o f Corn651

Bacterial Soft Rots656

Bacterial Soft Rots o f Vegetables656

The Incalculable Postharvest Losses from Bacterial （and Fungal） Soft Rots （Box）660

Bacterial Galls662

Crown Gall662

The Crown Gall Bacterium—The Natural Genetic Engineer （Box）664

Bacterial Cankers667

Bacterial Canker and Gummosis o f Stone Fruit Trees—Citrus Canker667

Bacterial Scabs674

Common Scab of Potato667

Root Nodules of Legumes675

Xylem-Inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria678

Pierce’s Disease o f Grape—Citrus Variegated Chlorosis—Ratoon Stunting o f Sugarcane679

Phloem-Inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria683

Yellow Vine Disease o f Cucurbits—Citrus Greening Disease—Papaya Bunchy Top Disease684

Plant Diseases Caused By Mollicutes：Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas687

Properties o f True Mycoplasmas—Phytoplasmas—Spiroplasmas688

Examples of Plant Diseases Caused by Mollicutes691

Aster Yellows—Lethal Yellowing o f Coconut Palms—Apple Proliferation—European Stone Fruit Yellows—Ash Yellows—Elm Yellows （Phloem Necrosis）—Peach X-Disease—Pear Decline691

Spiroplasma Diseases699

Citrus Stubborn Disease—Corn Stunt Disease691

chapter thirteen PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITIC HIGHER PLANTS，INVASIVE CLIMBING PLANTS，AND PARASITIC GREEN ALGAE705

Introduction—Parasitic Higher Plants705

Dodder -Witchweed—Broomrapes—Dwarf Mistletoes o f Conifers—True or Leafy Mistletoes706

Invasive Climbing Plants716

Old World Climbing Fern—Kudzu Vine717

Parasitic Green Algae：Cephaleuros719

Plant Diseases Caused by Algae719

chapter fourteen PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES724

Introduction724

Characteristics of Plant Viruses724

Detection—Morphology—Composition and Structure：O f Viral Protein—O f Viral Nucleic Acid725

Satellite Viruses and Satellite RNAs731

The Biological Function of Viral Components：Coding731

Virus Infection and Virus Synthesis731

Translocation and Distribution of Viruses in Plants733

Symptoms Caused by Plant Viruses734

Physiology of Virus-Infected Plants737

Transmission of Plant Viruses By：Vegetative Propagation—Sap—Seed—Pollen—Insects—Mites—Nematodes—Fungi—Dodder737

Epidemiology of Plant Viruses and Viroids743

Purification of Plant Viruses—Serology of Plant Viruses743

Nomenclature and Classification of Plant Viruses747

Detection and Identification of Plant Viruses751

Economic Importance of Plant Viruses752

Control of Plant Viruses753

Diseases Caused by Rigid Rod-Shaped Viruses757

Diseases Caused by Tobamoviruses：—Tobacco Mosaic757

The Contribution o f Tobacco Mosaic Virus to Biology and Medicine （Box）757

Diseases Caused by Tobraviruses：—Tobacco Rattle by Furoviruses—by Hordeiviruses—by Pecluviruses—by Pomoviruses—by Benyviruses758

Diseases Caused by Filamentous Viruses762

Diseases Caused by Potexviruses—by Carlaviruses— by Capilloviruses and Trichoviruses—by Allexiviruses，Foveaviruses，and Vitiviruses762

Diseases Caused by Potyviridae764

Diseases Caused by Potyviruses764

Bean Common Mosaic and Bean Yellow Mosaic—Lettuce Mosaic—Plum Pox—Papaya Ringspot—Potato Virus Y—Sugarcane Mosaic—Tobacco Etch—Turnip Mosaic—Watermelon Mosaic—Zucchini Yellow Mosaic767

Diseases Caused by Ipomoviruses，Macluraviruses，Rymoviruses，and Tritimoviruses—by Bymoviruses773

Diseases Caused by Closteroviridae774

Diseases Caused by Closteroviruses：—Citrus Tristeza—Beet YellowsDiseases Caused by Criniviruses：—Lettuce Infectious Yellows774

Diseases Caused by Isometric Single-Stranded RNA Viruses779

Diseases Caused by Sequiviridae，Genus Waikavirus779

Rice TungroDiseases Caused by Tombusviridae779

Diseases Caused by Luteoviridae781

Barley Yellow Dwarf—Potato Leafroll—Beet Western Yellows781

Diseases Caused by Monopartite Isometric （＋）ssRNA Viruses of Genera Not Yet Assigned to Families783

Diseases Caused by Comoviridae784

Diseases Caused by Comoviruses784

Diseases Caused by Nepoviruses784

Tomato Ring Spot—Grapevine Fanleaf—Raspberry Ring Spot785

Diseases Caused by Bromoviridae787

Diseases Caused by Cucumoviruses787

Cucumber Mosaic788

Diseases Caused by Ilarviruses：Prunus Necrotic Ring Spot790

Diseases Caused by Isometric Double-Stranded RNA Viruses792

Diseases Caused by Reoviridae792

Diseases Caused by Negative RNA [（-）ssRNA] Viruses794

Plant Diseases Caused by Rhabdoviruses794

Plant Diseases Caused by Tospoviruses795

Plant Diseases Caused by Tenuiviruses799

Diseases Caused by Double-Stranded DNA Viruses801

Diseases Caused by Caulimoviruses and Other Isometric Caulimoviridae801

Diseases Caused by Badnaviruses803

Diseases Caused by Single-Stranded DNA Viruses805

Plant Diseases Caused by Geminiviridae805

Beet Curly Top—Maize Streak—African Cassava Mosaic—Bean Golden Mosaic—Squash Leaf Curl—Tomato Mottle—Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl809

Plant Diseases Caused by Isometric Single-Stranded813

DNA Viruses：The Circoviridae813

Banana Bunchy Top814

Coconut Foliar Decay815

Viroids816

Plant Diseases Caused by Viroids816

Taxonomy （Grouping） of Viroids816

Potato Spindle Tuber—Citrus Exocortis—Coconut Cadang-Cadang820

chapter fifteen PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY NEMATODES826

Introduction826

Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Nematodes827

Morphology—Anatomy—Life Cycles—Ecology and Spread—Classification827

Isolation of Nematodes831

Isolation o f Nematodes from Soil831

Isolation o f Nematodes from Plant Material832

Symptoms Caused by Nematodes832

How Nematodes Affect Plants833

Interrelationships between Nematodes and Other Plant Pathogens835

Control of Nematodes836

Important Nematodes and Diseases838

Root-Knot Nematodes：Meloidogyne838

Cyst Nematodes：Heterodera and Globodera842

Soybean Cyst Nematode：Heterodera glycines843

Sugar Beet Nematode：Heterodera schachtii846

Potato Cyst Nematode：Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida847

The Citrus Nematode：Tylenchulus Semipenetrans848

Lesion Nematodes：Pratylenchus849

The Burrowing Nematode：Radopholus853

The Added Significance o f Plant Nematodes in the Tropics and Subtropics （Box）858

Stem and Bulb Nematode：Ditylenchus858

Sting Nematode：Belonolaimus860

Stubby-Root Nematodes：Paratrichodorus and Trichodorus863

Seed-Gall Nematodes：Anguina865

Foliar Nematodes：Aphelenchoides867

Pine Wilt and Palm Red Ring Diseases：Bursaphelenchus870

Pine Wilt Nematode：Bursaphelenchus xylophilus870

Red Ring Nematode：Bursaphelenchus cocophilus872

chapter sixteen PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY FLAGELLATE PROTOZOA875

Introduction875

Nomenclature o f Plant Trypanosomatids—Taxonomy—Pathogenicity—Epidemiology and Control o f Plant Trypanosomatids877

Plant Diseases Caused by：878

Phloem-Restricted Trypanosomatids878

Phloem Necrosis of Coffee—Hartrot of Coconut Palms—Sudden Wilt （Marchitez Sopresiva） of Oil Palm—Wilt and Decay of Red Ginger878

Latici fer-Restricted trypanosomatids882

Empty Root of Cassava882

Fruit-and Seed-Infecting Trypanosomatids882

Fruit Trypanosomatids882

Glossary887

Index903