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1 The Study of Crime1

The Nature of Crime and Delinquency2

The Characteristics of Crime4

Juvenile Delinquency5

Social Origins of the Criminal Law6

Theoretical Perspectives on Crime and the Criminal Law6

The Social Construction of Crime9

Strategies of Criminological Research10

Comparative and Historical Research11

Biographies12

Patterns of Crime13

The Cohort Study15

Surveys16

Other Strategies of Criminological Research18

Summary20

IMPORTANT TERMS20

REVIEW QUESTIONS21

FOR FURTHER STUDY21

2 Measuring Crime22

The Emergence of Modern Criminology22

Classical Criminology22

Cartography23

Positivism24

Official Crime Statistics25

History of Crime Statistics in the United States26

FBI Crime Statistics26

Crime Rates28

Gathering Crime Statistics31

Using FBI Data for Criminological Research36

Measuring Criminal Victimization36

History of Victimization Surveys36

Comparing NCVS and FBI Data37

The Dark Figure37

Methodological Problems with Victimization Surveys39

Measuring Crime by Self-Reports40

History of Self-Report Studies40

The Dark Figure41

Methodological Problems with Self-Report Studies42

Summary44

IMPORTANT TERMS45

REVIEW QUESTIONS45

FOR FURTHER STUDY45

3 Crime and Its Costs46

Conventional Crimes48

Crimes of Violence48

Property Crimes58

White-Collar Crime64

Is White-Collar Crime Different?65

The Costs of White-Collar Crime67

Organized Crime68

The Costs of Organized Crime69

Victimless Crimes69

Drug Use70

Gambling70

Prostitution71

Summary71

IMPORTANT TERMS72

REVIEW QUESTIONS72

FOR FURTHER STUDY73

4 Dimensions of Crime74

Cross-National Variations in Crime Rates74

Regional Variations in Crime Rates within the United States76

Variations in Crime Rates by Community77

Crime within Metropolitan Areas78

Migration and Crime80

Temporal Variations in Crime Rates81

Seasonal Variations in Crime Rates81

Annual Trends in Crime Rates82

Variations in Crime Rates by Sex83

Sex and Juvenile Delinquency85

Sex and Crime86

Sex and Victimization87

Variations in Crime Rates by Age88

Age-Specific Arrest Rates88

Age Distribution and Crime Rates89

Age and Victimization91

Variations in Crime Rates by Race91

Race, Arrest Statistics, and Self-Report Studies93

Race, Crime, and Background Variables94

Race and Victimization95

Variations in Crime Rates by Social Class97

Social Class and Adult Crime97

Social Class and Juvenile Delinquency97

Methodological Problems98

Social Class and Victimization99

Summary99

IMPORTANT TERMS100

REVIEW QUESTIONS101

FOR FURTHER STUDY101

5 Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime102

Biological Explanations of Crime102

History of the Biological Perspective on Crime103

Modern Biological Research on Crime104

Biology and Modern Criminology111

Psychological Explanations of Crime113

Intelligence and Crime113

Personality Characteristics116

Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders124

Psychology and Variations in Crime Rates125

Psychology and the Criminal Law126

Summary129

IMPORTANT TERMS130

REVIEW QUESTIONS130

FOR FURTHER STUDY131

6 Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Crime132

Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of White-Collar Crime133

Free Enterprise: Profits and Competition133

Market Structure and Crime135

Trust and Credit136

Corporations and Crime136

Development of New Technology137

Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Organized Crime139

Prohibition and Organized Crime140

Organized Crime after Prohibition140

Organized Crime and the Economic System142

Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Conventional Crime142

Modernization and Crime143

Opportunity and the Economy144

Unemployment and Crime144

Relative Deprivation and Crime147

Anomie, Strain, and Crime148

Differential Opportunity and Delinquency152

Social Class, Values, and Delinquency154

The Subculture of Violence156

Gender, Crime, and Feminist Criminology159

The Generalizability Problem160

The Gender Ratio Problem160

Gender Socialization162

Doing Gender162

Power-Control Theory164

Women as Victims, Women as Resisters165

Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors and Variations in Crime Rates165

Summary167

IMPORTANT TERMS168

REVIEW QUESTIONS168

FOR FURTHER STUDY168

7 Social Control and Commitment to the Law170

Neutralizing the Law170

Drift170

Delinquent, Dominant, and Subterranean Values171

Techniques of Neutralization172

Evidence on Techniques of Neutralization177

Critique of Neutralization Theory180

Social Control Theory181

The Family181

The School182

The Peer Group182

Conventional Lines of Action and Adult Activities182

Evidence on Social Control Theory183

Critique of Social Control Theory197

Techniques of Neutralization, Social Control Theory, and Variations in Crime Rates199

Summary200

IMPORTANT TERMS201

REVIEW QUESTIONS201

FOR FURTHER STUDY201

8 Learning to Commit Crime202

Sources of Learning to Commit Crime202

The Community202

The Peer Group203

The General Culture203

The Media205

Sports208

Pornography210

Correctional Institutions211

Differential Association Theory212

Critique of Differential Association Theory214

Evidence on Differential Association Theory216

The Labeling Perspective221

Labeling and Self-Concepts222

Labeling and Opportunities224

Labeling and Subcultures225

Critique of the Labeling Perspective226

Rewards and Risks of Crime226

Reward-Risk Models of Criminal Behavior227

The Rewards and Risks of Crime230

Critique of Reward-Risk Models234

Learning Theories and Variations in Crime Rates234

Summary235

IMPORTANT TERMS237

REVIEW QUESTIONS237

FOR FURTHER STUDY237

9 Opportunities and Facilitating Factors238

Routine Activities Theory238

A Critique of Routine Activities Theory240

Targets of Crime241

Property Crimes242

Vulnerability of Victims243

Victim Precipitation247

Facilitating Factors: Alcohol, Drugs, and Firearms249

Alcohol and Crime250

Drugs and Crime252

Firearms and Crime254

Summary260

IMPORTANT TERMS261

REVIEW QUESTIONS261

FOR FURTHER STUDY261

10 Criminal Careers263

Theoretical Perspectives on Criminal Careers264

Analyzing Criminal Careers265

Career Contingencies265

The Labeling Perspective266

The "Zigzag Path": Criminal Careers and Legitimate Pursuits267

Recruitment into a Criminal Career268

Typologies of Criminal Careers269

Delinquent Careers269

Chronic Offenders270

Patterns of Delinquent Careers271

Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Criminal Careers272

Criminal Careers of Robbers274

Career Patterns275

Planning Crimes275

Use of the Stolen Money276

Intensive and Intermittent Career Criminals276

Criminal Careers of White-Collar Offenders277

Leaving a Life of Crime278

A Model of the Exiting Process278

Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Professional Thief280

Reasons for Leaving a Career in Violent Crime280

Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Drug Dealer or Smuggler281

Exiting and Theories of Crime Causation281

Exiting and the Correctional System283

Summary284

IMPORTANT TERMS285

REVIEW QUESTIONS285

FOR FURTHER STUDY286

11 The Organization of Criminal Behavior287

The Meaning of Organization288

Juvenile Gangs290

The Unorganized Gang291

The Organized Gang292

Conventional Crime295

Professional Theft295

Drug Smuggling and Dealing299

Violent Crime301

Organized Crime301

The Mafia in the United States303

New Forms of Organized Crime307

White-Collar Crime309

Summary310

IMPORTANT TERMS311

REVIEW QUESTIONS311

FOR FURTHER STUDY312

12 Community Reactions to Crime313

Fear of Crime314

Consequences of the Fear of Crime316

Informal Control of Crime319

Community and Informal Social Control319

Defensible Space and Informal Social Control322

Individual Response to Crime324

Bystander Responses to Crime324

Collective Response to Crime328

A Historical and Comparative Perspective329

Urban Patrol Groups330

Neighborhood Watches332

Community Crime-Prevention Strategies333

Summary334

IMPORTANT TERMS335

REVIEW QUESTIONS335

FOR FURTHER STUDY336

13 The Criminal Justice System337

The Police338

History of the Police338

Police Abuses of Authority340

The Clearance Rate346

Criminal Courts347

The Bail System348

Preventive Detention348

Prosecutors349

Defense Attorneys349

Judges350

Juries350

Plea Bargaining350

Probation351

Sentence Disparity352

The Prisons358

History of Prisons359

The Prison Population359

Parole361

The Victim in the Criminal Justice System362

Compensation362

Restitution363

The Changing Role of the Victim364

Summary365

IMPORTANT TERMS366

REVIEW QUESTIONS366

FOR FURTHER STUDY367

14 Deterrence, Incapacitation, Retribution,and Rehabilitation368

Deterrence368

Assumptions about Behavior369

Deterrence and Other Effects of Penalties370

Deterrence and the Criminal Act371

Deterrence and the Sanctioning Process372

Deterrence and the Criminal Justice System374

Incapacitation382

Selective Incapacitation382

Career Criminal Programs383

"Three Strikes and You're Out"384

Retribution384

A System of Just Deserts386

Retribution and the Criminal Justice System390

Rehabilitation397

Rehabilitation and the Criminal Justice System398

Types of Treatment400

Does Rehabilitation Work?402

Reaffirming Rehabilitation404

Reintegrating the Offender into Society406

The Future of Rehabilitation407

Summary408

IMPORTANT TERMS409

REVIEW QUESTIONS409

FOR FURTHER STUDY410

15 Solving the Crime Problem411

Ideological Approaches to Solving the Crime Problem411

The Conservative Approach411

The Liberal Approach412

The Radical Approach412

Attitudes toward the Causes and Prevention of Crime413

The Politics of Crime414

The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice414

The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration415

The 1968 and 1972 Presidential Elections416

The Crime Issue during the Reagan Administration416

The 1988 Presidential Election and the George H. W. Bush Administration417

The 1992 and 1996 Elections and the Clinton Administration417

The 2000 Presidential Election and the George W. Bush Administration418

Crime and the Criminal Justice System420

Overreach of the Criminal Law420

The Police420

The Courts421

The Prisons424

Situational Crime Prevention425

Target Hardening426

Self-Protective Measures426

Informal Social Control426

Community Crime Prevention427

Dealing with the Causes of Crime427

Economic Factors428

The Process of Social Change429

Political Factors429

Community Ties430

The Family430

The School431

Discrimination431

Conclusion432

Summary432

IMPORTANT TERMS433

REVIEW QUESTIONS433

FOR FURTHER STUDY433

Glossary435

Bibliography443

Name Index478

Subject Index486

FEATURE BOXES35

Crime and the Media35

The Police and the News Media35

Reporting Terrorism57

White-Collar Crime in the News66

Race and the Student-Murderer92

Internet Crimes against Young People138

The How-to-Commit-Crime Manual213

Crime Stoppers325

Crime on Campus43

Measuring the Problem43

Fraud and Student Loans61

Computer Crime and Differential Association Theory220

Routine Activities and Criminal Victimization241

The Role of Alcohol and Drugs250

Just Deserts for Student Offenders?385

Cross-Cultural Perspectives55

Hate Crimes against French Jews55

Violent Crime in South Africa75

Japanese Corporations and the Yakuza143

Machismo and Murder in Brazil204

Terrorism and the al Qaeda Network288

Rape in Bosnia302

Lynchings in Brazil330

Rape and Adultery in Pakistan363

Capital Punishment in China381

Using Criminology90

Can Curfews Stop Juvenile Crime?90

Neurological and Psychological Problems of Juveniles Condemned to Death110

Gender and the Student-Murdarer163

Holding Parents Responsible for Their Children's Behavior188

RICO and Organized Crime306

Profiling the Serial Killer422