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PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS3

Chapter 1 A Spread-Spectrum Overview3

1.1 A Basis for a Jamming Game3

1.2 Energy Allocation Strategies6

1.3 Spread-Spectrum System Configurations and Components9

CONTENTS15

Preface15　　15

Preface to First Edition16

1.4 Energy Gain Calculations for Typical Systems17

1.5 The Advantages of Spectrum Spreading20

1.5.1 Low Probability of Intercept (LPI)20

1.5.2 Independent Interference Rejection and Multiple-Access Operation25

1.5.3 High-Resolution Time-of-Arrival (TOA)Measurements29

2.3.1 Characterization of the Transmitted Signal31

1.6 Design Issues37

1.7 References38

1.7.1 Books on Communication Theory38

1.7.4 Spread-Spectrum Tutorials and General Interest Papers39

1.7.2 Books on Resolution and Ambiguity Functions39

1.7.3 Recent Books and Proceedings on Spread-Spectrum Communications39

Chapter 2 The Historical Origins of Spread-Spectrum Communications41

2.1.1 Radar Innovations42

2.1 Emerging Concepts42

2.1.2 Developments in Communication Theory45

2.1.3 Correlator Mechanization47

2.1.4 Protected Communications48

2.1.5 Remote Control and Missile Guidance58

2.2 Early Spread-Spectrum Systems65

2.2.1 WHYN65

2.2.2 A Note on CYTAC71

2.2.3 Hush-Up71

2.2.4 BLADES73

2.2.5 Noise Wheels78

2.2.6 The Hartwell Connection84

2.2.7 NOMAC87

2.2.8 F9C-A/Rake90

2.2.9 A Note on PPM100

2.2.10 CODORAC100

2.2.11 M-Sequence Genesis106

2.2.12 AN/ARC-50 Development at Magnavox108

2.3.1　Spread-Spectrum Radar111

2.3 Branches on the SS Tree111

2.3.2 Other Early Spread-Spectrum Communication Systems112

2.3.3 Spread-Spectrum Developments Outside the United States121

2.4 A Viewpoint123

2.5 References125

3.1 Design Approach for Anti-Jam Systems137

Chapter 3 Basic Concepts and System Models137

3.2 Models and Fundamental Parameters139

3.3 Jammer Waveforms141

3.3.1 Broadband and Partial-Band Noise Jammers141

3.3.2 CW and Multitone Jammers143

3.3.3 Pulse Jammer143

3.3.4 Arbitrary Jammer Power Distributions143

3.3.5 Repeat-Back Jammers144

3.4 Uncoded Direct-Sequence Spread Binary Phase-Shift-Keying144

3.4.1 Constant Power Broadband Noise Jammer147

3.4.2 Pulse Jammer150

3.5 Coded Direct-Sequence Spread Binary Phase-Shift-Keying153

3.5.1 Interleaver and Deinterleaver158

3.5.2 Unknown Channel State159

3.5.2.1 Soft Decision Decoder160

3.5.2.2 Hard Decision Decoder162

3.5.3 Known Channel State165

3.5.3.1 Soft Decision Decoder166

3.5.3.2 Hard Decision Decoder168

3.6 Uncoded Frequency-Hopped Binary Frequency-Shift-Keying169

3.6.1 Constant Power Broadband Noise Jammer172

3.6.2 Partial-Band Noise Jammer174

3.6.3 Multitone Jammer176

3.7 Coded Frequency-Hopped Binary Frequency-Shift-Keying178

3.8 Interleaver/Hop Rate Tradeoff180

3.9 Receiver Noise Floor180

3.10 Discussion183

3.11 References183

Appendix 3A: Interleaving and Deinterleaving184

Chapter 4 General Analysis of Anti-Jam Communication Systems189

4.1 System Model190

4.2 Coded Bit Error Rate Bound194

4.3 Cutoff Rates196

4.4 Conventional Coherent BPSK198

4.5 DS/BPSK and Pulse Jamming204

4.6 Translation of Coded Error Bounds205

4.7 Conventional Non-Coherent MFSK208

4.7.1 Uncoded208

4.7.2 Coded213

4.8 FH/MFSK and Partial-Band Jamming217

4.9 Diversity for FH/MFSK227

4.10.1 Binary Super Channel235

4.10 Concatenation of Codes235

4.10.3 Reed-Solomon Outer Codes238

4.10.2 M-ary Super Channel238

4.11 Summary of Bit Error Bounds246

4.11.1 DS/BPSK with Pulse Jamming246

4.11.2 FH/MFSK with Partial-Band Noise Jamming247

4.11.3 Coding Functions249

4.12 References249

Appendix 4A: Chernoff Bound250

Appendix 4B: Factor of One-Half in Error Bounds251

Appendix 4C: Reed-Solomon Code Performance260

Chapter 5 Pseudonoise Generators264

5.1 The Storage/Generation Problem264

5.2 Linear Recursions271

5.2.1 Fibonacci Generators271

5.2.2 Formal Power Series and Characteristic Polynomials273

5.2.3 Galois Generators275

5.2.4 State Space Viewpoint278

5.2.5 Determination of Linear Recursions from Sequence Segments280

5.3.1 Partial Fraction Decompositions281

5.3 Memory-Efficient Linear Generators281

5.3.2 Maximization of Period for a Fixed Memory Size283

5.3.3 Repeated Factors in the Characteristic Polynomial284

5.3.4 M-Sequences285

5.4 Statistical Properties of M-Sequences286

5.4.1 Event Counts287

5.4.2 The Shift-and-Add Property288

5.4.3 Hamming Distance Properties of Derived Real-Integer Sequences289

5.4.4 Correlation Properties of Derived Complex Roots-of-Unity Sequences291

5.5 Galois Field Connections297

5.5.1 Extension Field Construction297

5.5.2 The LFSR as a Galois Field Multiplier298

5.5.3 Determining the Period of Memory Cell Outputs299

5.5.4 The Trace Representation of M-Sequences301

5.5.5 A Correlation Computation304

5.5.6 Decimations of Sequences305

5.6 Non-Linear Feed-Forward Logic307

5.6.1 A Powers-of-α Representation Theorem307

5.6.2 Key's Bound on Linear Span311

5.6.3 Difference Set Designs315

5.6.4 GMW Sequences317

5.7 Direct-Sequence Multiple-Access Designs326

5.7.1 A Design Criterion326

5.7.2 Welch's Inner Product Bound327

5.7.3 Cross-correlation of Binary M-Sequences329

5.7.4 Linear Designs334

5.7.5 A Transform-Domain Design Philosophy340

5.7.6 Bent Sequences344

5.8.1 Design Criteria352

5.8 Frequency-Hopping Multiple-Access Designs352

5.8.2 A Bound on Hamming Distance353

5.8.3 An FHMA Design Employing an M-Sequence Generator354

5.8.4 Reed-Solomon Sequences355

5.9 A Look at the Literature360

5.10 References362

Appendix 5A: Finite Field Arithmetic367

Appendix 5B: Factorizations of 2n—1 and Selected Primitive Polynomials398

PART 2 CLASSICAL SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS405

Chapter 1 Coherent Direct Sequence Systems405

1.1 Direct-Sequence Spread Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying407

1.2 Uncoded Bit Error Probability for Arbitrary Jammer Wave forms409

1.2.1 Chernoff Bound410

1.2.2 Gaussian Assumptions411

1.3 Uncoded Bit Error Probability for Specific Jammer Waveforms412

1.3.1 CW Jammer414

1.3.2 Random Jammer416

1.4.1 Arbitrary Time Distribution418

1.4 Pulse Jamming418

1.4.2 Worst Case Jammer420

1.5 Standard Codes and Cutoff Rates422

1.5.1 The Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel422

1.5.2 Jamming Channels424

1.6.1 Continuous Jammer with No Coding428

1.6 Slow Frequency Non-Selective Fading Channels428

1.6.2 Continuous Jammer with Coding—No Fading Estimate430

1.6.3 Continuous Jammer with Coding—Fading Estimate436

1.6.4 Pulse Jammer withNo Coding441

1.7 Slow Fading Multipath Channels442

1.8 Other Coding Metrics for Pulse Jamming453

1.9 Discussion460

1.10 References462

Chapter 2 Non-Coherent Frequency-Hopped Systems464

2.1 Broadband Noise Jamming471

2.2.1 Partial-Band Noise Jamming475

2.2 Worst Case Jamming475

2.2.2 Multitone Jamming480

2.2.2.1 Random JammingTone Phase483

2.2.2.2 Band Multitone Jamming484

2.2.2.3 Independent Multitone Jamming493

2.3 Coding Countermeasures497

2.3.1 Time Diversity497

2.3.1.1 Partial-Band Noise Jamming500

2.3.1.2 Band Multitone Jamming512

2.3.1.3 Independent Multitone Jamming535

2.3.1.4 Time Diversity Overview540

2.3.2 Coding Without Diversity546

2.3.2.1 Convolutional Codes547

2.3.2.2 Reed-Solomon Codes562

2.3.2.3 Concatenated Codes565

2.3.3 Coding With Diversity567

2.3.3.1 Optimum Code Rates593

2.4 Slow Fading Uniform Channels600

2.4.1 Broadband Jamming—No Diversity602

2.4.2 Broadband Jamming—Diversity and Coding604

2.4.3 Partial-Band Jamming612

2.5 Worst Noise Jammer Distribution—Slow Fading Uniform Channel615

2.5.1 Uncoded615

2.5.2 Diversity and Coding619

2.6 Worst Noise Jammer Distribution—Slow Fading Nonuniform Channel622

2.6.1 Uncoded623

2.6.2 Diversity and Coding626

2.7 Other Coding Metrics630

2.7.1 Energy Quantizer633

2.7.2 Hard Decision with One Bit Quality Measure636

2.7.3 List Metric641

2.7.4 Metrics for Binary Codes652

2.8 References660

Appendix 2A: Justification of Factor of 1/2 for FH/MFSK Signals with Diversity in Partial-Band Noise662

Appendix 2B: Combinatorial Computation for n = 1 Band Multitone Jamming664

PART 3 OTHER FREQUENCY-HOPPED SYSTEMS669

Chapter 1 Coherent Modulation Techniques669

1.1 Performance of FH/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming670

1.2 Performance of FH/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming680

1.3 Performance of FH/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming687

1.4 Performance of FH/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming690

1.5 Performance of FH/PN/QPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming693

1.6 Performance of FH/PN/QASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming698

1.7 Performance of FH/QPR in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming699

1.8 Performance of FH/QPR in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming710

1.9 Summary and Conclusions713

1.10 References713

Chapter 2 Differentially Coherent Modulation Techniqnes715

2.1 Performance of FH/MDPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming716

2.1.1 Evaluation of Q2πn/m719

2.2 Performance of FH/MDPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming728

2.3 Performance of DQASK in the Presence of Additive White Gaussian Noise731

2.3.2 Receiver Characterization and Performance732

2.4 Performance of FH/DQASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Multitone Jamming739

2.5 Performance of FH/DQASK in the Presence of Partial-Band Noise Jamming748

2.6 References749

PART 4 SYNCHRONIZATION OF SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEMS753

Chapter 1 Pseudonoise Acquisition in Direct Sequence Receivers753

1.1 Historical Survey753

1.2 The Single Dwell Serial PN Acquisition System765

1.2.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model767

1.2.2 Single Dwell Acquisition Time Performance in the Absence of Code Doppler770

1.2.3 Single Dwell Acquisition Time Performance in the Presence of Code Doppler and Doppler Rate777

1.2.4 Evaluation of Detection Probability PD and False Alarm Probability PFA in Terms of PN Acquisition System Parameters781

1.2.5 Effective Probability of Detection and Timing Misalignment785

1.2.6 Modulation Distortion Effects786

1.2.7 Reduction in Noise Spectral Density Caused by PN Despreading786

1.2.8 Code Doppler and Its Derivative787

1.2.9 Probability of Acquisition for the Single Dwell System789

1.3 The Multiple Dwell Serial PN Acquisition System794

1.3.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model798

1.3.2 Multiple Dwell Acquisition Time Performance801

1.4.1 The Flow Graph Technique811

1.4 A Unified Approach to Serial Search Acquisition with Fixed Dwell Times811

1.5 Rapid Acquisition Using Matched Filter Techniques817

1.5.1 Markov Chain Acquisition Model and Acquisition Time Performance824

1.5.2 Evaluation of Detection and False Alarm Probabilities for Correlation and Coincidence Detectors827

1.5.2.1 Exact Results829

1.5.2.2 Approximate Results831

1.5.2.3 Acquisition Time Performance833

1.6 PN Sync Search Procedures and Sweep Strategies for a Non-Uniformly Distributed Signal Location834

1.6.1 An Example—Single Dwell Serial Acquisition with an Optimized Expanding Window Search838

1.6.2 Application of the Circular State Diagram Approach843

1.7 PN Synchronization Using Sequential Detection860

1.7.1 A Brief Review of Sequential Hypothesis Testing as Applied to the Non-Coherent Detection of a Sine Wave in Gaussian Noise864

1.7.2 The Biased Square-Law Sequential Detector867

1.7.3 Probability of False Alarm and Average Test Duration in the Absence of Signal868

1.7.4 Simulation Results877

1.8 Search/Lock Strategies885

1.8.1 Mean and Variance of the Acquisition Time887

1.8.1.1 Evaluation of Probability Lock890

1.8.1.2 Evaluation of Mean Dwell Time891

1.8.2 Another Search/Lock Strategy896

1.9 Further Discussion898

1.10 References899

Chapter 2 Pseudonoise Tracking in Direct Sequence Receivers903

2.1.1 Mathematical Loop Model and Equation of Operation904

2.1 The Delay-Locked Loop904

2.1.2 Statistical Characterization of the Equivalent Additive Noise909

2.1.3 Linear Analysis of DLL Tracking Performance911

2.2 The Tau-Dither Loop915

2.2.1 Mathematical Loop Model and equation of Operation916

2.2.2 Statistical Characterization of the Equivalent Additive Noise920

2.2.3 Linear Analysis of TDL Tracking Performance922

2.3 Acquisition (Transient) Behavior of the DLL and TDL928

2.4 Mean Time to Loss-of-Lock for the DLL and TDL933

2.5 The Double Dither Loop935

2.6 The Product of Sum and Difference DLL937

2.7 The Modified Code Tracking Loop941

2.8 The Complex Sums Loop (A Phase-Sensing DLL)948

2.9 Quadriphase PN Tracking949

2.10 Further Discussio952

2.11 References956

Chapter 3 Time and Frequency Synchronization of Frequency-Hopped Receivers958

3.1 FH Acquisition Techniques959

3.1.1 Serial Search Techniques with Active Correlation959

3.1.2 Serial Search Techniques with Passive Correlation983

3.1.3 Other FH Acquisition Techniques985

3.2 Time Synchronization of Non-Coherent FH/MFSK Systems989

3.2.1 The Case of Full-Band Noise jamming992

3.2.1.1 Signal Model and Spectral Computations992

3.2.1.2 Results of Large Nh997

3.2.2 The Case of Partial-Band Noise Jamming999

3.2.2.1 Results of Large pNh1000

3.2.3 The Effects of Time Synchronization Error on FH/MFSK Error Probability Performance1001

3.2.3.1 Conditional Error Probability Performance—No Diversity1002

3.2.3.2 Conditional ErrorProbability Performance—m-Diversity with Non-Coherent Combining1006

3.2.3.3 Average Error Probability Performance in the Presence of Time Synchronization Error Estimation1009

3.3 Frequency Synchronization of Non-Coherent FH/MFSK Systems1011

3.3.1 The Case of Full-Band Noise Jamming1013

3.3.1.1 Signal Model and Spectral Computations1013

3.3.2 The Case of Partial-Band Noise Jamming1017

3.3.3 The Effects of Frequency Synchronization Error on FH/MFSK Error Probability Performance1017

3.3.3.1 Average Error Probability Performance in the Presence of Frequency Synchronization Error Estimation1022

3.4 References Appendix 3A: To Prove That a Frequency Estimator Based upon Adjacent Spectral Estimates Taken at Integer Multiples of 1/T Cannot be Unbiased1026

PART 5 SPECIAL TOPICS1033

Chapter 1 Low Probability of Intercept Communications1033

1.1 Signal Modulation Forms1035

1.2 Interception Detectors1036

1.2.1 ldeal and Realizable Detectors1037

1.2.1.1 Detectability Criteria1037

1.2.1.2 Maximum or Bounding Performance of Fundamental Detector Types1037

(1) Wideband Energy Detector(Radiometer)1038

(2) Optimum Multichannel FH Pulse-Matched Energy Detector1040

(3) Filter Bank Combiner (FBC) Detector1045

(4) Partial-band Filter Bank Combiner(PB-FBC)1050

1.2.1.3 Signal Structures and Modulation Considerations1055

1.2.2 Non-idealistic Detector Performance1059

1.2.2.1 The Problem of Time Synchronization1059

(1) Wideband Detector with Overlapping I Ds Each of Duration Equal to That of the Message1059

(2) Wideband Detector with Single(Non-overlapping) I D of Duration Equal to Half of the Message Duration1063

(3) Wideband Detector with a Continuous Integration Post-Detection RC Filter1064

(4) Filter Bank Combiner with Overlapping I Ds Each of Hop Interval Duration1066

1.2.2.2 The Problem of Frequency Synchronization1070

(1) Doppler Effects1070

(2) Performance of the FBC with Frequency Error1070

(1) Wideband Single-Channel Detectors1074

1.2.3.1 Basic Configurations1074

1.2.3 Detector Implementation1074

(2) Channelized Detectors1076

1.2.3.2 Other Possible Feature Detector Configurations1077

1.3 Performance and Strategies Assessment1083

1.3.1 Communicator Modulation and Intercept Detectors1083

1.3.2 Anti-Jam Measures1087

1.3.3 Optimum LPI Modulation/Coding Conditions1089

1.4 Further Discussion1089

1.5 References1092

Appendix 1A: Conditions for Viable Multichannel Detector Performance1093

Chapter 2 Multiple Access1096

2.1.1 Decentralized (Point-to-Point) Networks1099

2.1 Networks1099

2.1.2 Centralized (Multipoint-to-Point) Networks1103

2.2 Summary of Multiple Access Tec hniques1105

2.3 Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access with DS/BPSK Waveforms1110

2.3.1 Point-to-Point1110

2.3.2 Conventional Multipoint-to-Point1113

2.3.3 Optimum Multipoint-to-Point1116

2.4 Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access with FH/MFSK Wave forms1123

2.4.1 Point-to-Point1124

2.4.2 Conventional Multipoint-to-Point1136

2.4.3 Optimum Multipoint-to-Point1142

2.6 References1148

2.5 Discussion1148

Chapter 3 Commercial Applications1158

3.1 Key Events in the Commercial Market1160

3.2 The United States FCC Part 15 Rules1160

3.2.1 Indoor Applications1161

3.2.2 Outdoor Applications1162

3.2.3 Direct Sequence Versus Frequency Hopping1162

3.2.3.1 Conversion of Narrowband Radios1163

3.2.3.2 Cost of Development and Products1163

3.2.3.3 Performance1163

3.2.4 Multipath and Diversity1165

3.2.5 Results of The Part 15 Rule1166

3.3 The Digital Cellular CDMA Standard1169

3.3.1 Overview of the CDMA DigitalCellular System (IS-95)1170

3.3.2 Comparison of IS-95, IS-54, and GSM1172

3.4 A New Paradigm for Designing Radio Networks1173

3.5 The Potential Capacity of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum CDMA in High-Density Networks1176

3.5.1 Data Versus Voice Applications1179

3.5.2 Power Control1179

3.5.3 Time Synchronization and Orthogonal Codes1179

3.5.4 The Outbound Channel1180

3.5.5 Frequency Reuse and Antenna Scctorization1181

3.5.6 Narrowbcam and Delay-line Antennas1181

3.6 Spread Spectrum CDMA for PCS/PCN1182

3.6.2 S-CDMA Equivalent to Bit-Level TDMA1183

3.6.1 Binary Orthogonal Codes1183

3.6.3 A High-Density Voice PCS System1186

3.6.3.1 Bit-Error Probabilities1188

3.6.3.2 Computer Simulations1191

3.6.3.3 Other System Issues1192

3.6.3.4 Comparison with DECT1193

3.7 Higher Capacity Optional Receivers1194

3.8 Summary1195

3.9 References1196

Appendix 3A: Multipath and Diversity1198

Appendix 3B: Error Bounds for Interference-Limited Channels1208

Index1215